Skip to Content
Print Share

Spirulina

Scientific Name(s): Arthrospira maxima Setchell et Gardner, Arthrospira platensis (Nordstedt) Gomont
Common Name(s): Dihe, Spirulina, Tecuitlatl

Clinical Overview

Use

Spirulina is sold in the United States as a health food or supplement. Myriad claims exist for its immunostimulatory, hypolipidemic, antiviral, and anticancer effects; however, there is limited evidence to support these indications.

Dosing

Doses in clinical studies have ranged from 1 to 10 g/day.

Contraindications

Phenylketonuria; however, this has not been substantiated.

Pregnancy/Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Because of possible presence of mercury and other heavy metal contaminants, spirulina should be avoided during pregnancy.

Interactions

None well documented.

Adverse Reactions

Few reports of adverse reactions are available. However, spirulina-associated hepatotoxicity and reactions from heavy metal contamination are possible.

Toxicology

Spirulina is considered nontoxic to humans at usual levels of consumption; however, information is limited.

Biology

Spirulina, a blue-green algae (cyanophytes/cyanobacteria), grows as microscopic, corkscrew-shaped multicellular filaments and is now classified as a distinct genus, Arthrospira. A. platensis is found in Africa and Asia, and A. maxima is found in Central America.1, 2 Free growing, spirulina exists only in high-salt alkaline water in subtropical and tropical areas, sometimes imparting a dark-green color to bodies of water.3 Spirulina is noted for its characteristic behavior in carbonated water and energetic growth in laboratory cultures.4 It is commercially grown in the United States and has been proposed as a primary foodstuff to be cultivated during long-term space missions because it withstands extreme conditions.5, 6 Due to its unique growth requirements, contamination of open pond cultures of spirulina by other microorganisms is usually slight, with the alga growing as a relatively pure culture.

For information on red, blue, or green algae, see the Seaweed monograph.

History

Spirulina has been described in literature since the 16th century. Spanish explorers observed the Aztecs harvesting a blue mud that probably consisted of spirulina.2 The mud, which was dried to form chips or flavored loaves, was obtained from Lake Texcoco near Mexico City. Spirulina was similarly harvested in the Sahara Desert from small lakes near Lake Chad, where it was called dihe. Thus, 2 cultures approximately 10,000 km apart, independently discovered and utilized the nutritional properties of spirulina.2 Currently, spirulina is actively marketed by numerous companies as a nutritional supplement.7

Chemistry

Spirulina is composed of approximately 65% crude protein, high levels of B-complex vitamins,8 vitamin E,9 beta-carotene,10 and zeaxanthin.4, 11 The protein content includes 22 essential amino acids2, 12 and the total protein is nutritionally superior to legume protein, but inferior to meat protein.2 The proteins C-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin in spirulina have been the focus of much research.13, 14 High levels of gamma linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, are present.15 An assay for spirulina lipids using high-pressure liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry has been developed.16 Spirulina preparations contain 300 to 400 ppm iron (dry weight), and unlike many forms of plant iron, has high bioavailability when ingested by humans. A dosage of 10 g/day can contain 1.5 to 2 mg of absorbable iron, similar to that of standard ferrous sulfate.17, 18 Trace elements present at high levels include manganese, selenium, and zinc. Calcium, potassium, and magnesium are also concentrated in the organism.19 Calcium spirulan, a sulfated polysaccharide, was characterized from A. platensis.20

Uses and Pharmacology

Clinical trials have investigated spirulina's potential but have been too small to support its purported effects.21

Allergic rhinitis and asthma

Experimental data have suggested that C-phycocyanin can selectively inhibit release of histamine from mast cells and prevent increases in immunoglobulin E. A small study in patients with mild to moderate asthma suggested that spirulina supplementation (1 g/day) produced improvement in lung function parameters.22 A study evaluating spirulina in allergic rhinitis suggested a positive effect on laboratory values, but no clinical outcomes were reported.23 A 6-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (n = 150) of allergic rhinitis found superior efficacy for spirulina 2 g/day versus placebo with regard to diary-based symptom scores of nasal discharge.24

Antimicrobial activity

In vitro data

A provocative suggestion has been made that human cultures in which large amounts of algae are consumed have lower levels of HIV infection.25 Spirulina and its extracts have been evaluated for antiviral activity. One in vitro study found that the sulfated polysaccharide calcium spirulan interfered with the replication of several enveloped viruses, including herpes simplex, cytomegalovirus, mumps, measles, influenza A, and HIV-1.20 Another study described a slightly different range of viruses susceptible to the extract.26 HIV-1 adsorption and penetration were inhibited by an aqueous extract of spirulina, and a crude hot water extract reduced HIV-1 replication.25 This type of in vitro activity is common to acidic polysaccharides from a variety of sources. Enterovirus is also susceptible to spirulina, and allophycocyanin was the active constituent.27 Spirulina demonstrated some in vitro activity against common human bacterial pathogens but less than that of the standard comparator.28 Immune stimulation by phycocyanin and polysaccharides of spirulina led to an antifungal and antibacterial effect in mice.29

Cinical data

An evidence-based review (14 studies; n = 1,725 adults, 271 children) evaluated the benefits of nutritional supplements including spirulina in HIV infected people. The reviewers found firm conclusions difficult to make due to the small study sizes and heterogeneity of studies. No mortality benefit was seen for nutritional supplement nor spirulina compared with control (placebo or no supplement) in malnourished, antiretroviral therapy naive adults in the 2 studies evaluating these treatments. The pediatric study that evaluated spirulina’s effect on anthropometric measures found no benefit from 10 g/day of spirulina after 8 weeks compared with control, with both groups consuming the same diet. In general, the available evidence did not support use of specific macronutrients, whey protein, or spirulina for improvements in anthropometric, immunologic, or clinical outcomes in HIV-infected adults and children.111

Antioxidant

Experimental and animal data

The spirulina protein phycocyanin in pure form was active in 4 different cell-free radical-scavenging assays; however, phycocyanin-containing selenium was more effective.81 In cellular assays of antioxidant activity, 4 commercial spirulina preparations were also active.82 Spirulina supplementation of rats did not increase plasma or liver alpha-tocopherol levels83; however, another study reported effective antioxidant activity using combinations of whey protein and spirulina.84 C-phycocyanin from spirulina reduced oxidative stress in hamsters fed an atherogenic diet.85 Similarly, rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet were protected from oxidative stress by 4 to 8 weeks of spirulina in feed at 1% or 5%.86 An in vitro study determined that both the phycocyanin and non-phycocyanin bioactive compounds in a novel A. platensis–based aqueous cyanophyta extract contributed to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects without a negative impact on blood clotting. At doses between 125 and 500 mcg/mL, there were more events of clots, which showed to be statistically significant (P < 0.05) in the presence of phycocyanin, non-phycocyanin, and aqueous cyanophyta extract. However, lipoxygenase inhibition was associated specifically with the non-phycocyanin components.113

Clinical data

Other studies suggest spirulina as an antioxidant87, 115 but clinical importance has not been demonstrated88, 89 and 1 small clinical study showed spirulina to be without effect on plasma antioxidant status.90

Cancer

Experimental and animal data

C-phycocyanin showed a dose-dependent inhibition of HeLa and human chronic myeloid leukemia cell growth and proliferation in vitro.30, 31 Induction of apoptosis was considered to be one of the mechanisms involved.32 Doxorubicin-resistant HepG2 liver cancer cells were inhibited by spirulina C-phycocyanin through an apoptotic mechanism33 while water-soluble polysaccharides were implicated as the active agent against stomach cancer cells.34 A combination of selenium and spirulina inhibited MCF-7 breast cancer cells via growth arrest and apoptosis.35 Survival rates increased in mice with liver cancer treated with C-phycocyanin, and tumor regression has been reported in animals with oral cancer.36, 37, 38 Activation of antitumor natural killer cells by spirulina enhanced antitumor efficacy in a B16 mouse melanoma model, and the effect was abolished in MyD88 null/null mice, indicating that NK cell activation was a key pathway.39 In a hamster cheek pouch model of carcinogenesis, 10 mg/day of spirulina extract reduced dysplastic changes40 which was further confirmed by an immunohistochemical study.41 Spirulina was chemopreventative in a dibutyl nitrosamine carcinogenesis model.42 It also induced lesion regression in tobacco chewers with oral leukoplakia in a study conducted in India.43

Diabetes

Animal data

A study in alloxan-induced diabetic rats revealed that spirulina at 10 mg/kg orally for 30 days lowered glucose levels, while slightly elevating insulin.44

Clinical data

Two small clinical studies investigated the effects of spirulina supplementation in type 2 diabetes, with improvement noted in fasting blood sugar and lipid profiles. Suggested mechanisms of action include hypoglycemia caused by fiber content or possible insulin-stimulating action of peptides and polypeptides of spirulina proteins. The actions on lipids have been attributed to gamma linolenic acid content.45, 46 Insulin sensitivity and LDL cholesterol was reported to be significantly improved with administration of spirulina supplementation compared to placebo in obese patients with stable treated hypertension (P<0.001) in a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial (n=50).115

Dietary supplement

Animal data

Spirulina, considered a food item for centuries in many countries, is now popularly thought of as a dietary supplement.5 Spirulina consumption was purported to aid in weight loss because of its high phenylalanine content, but a US Food and Drug Administration review found no evidence to support this claim.47, 48 Suggestions that spirulina is a valuable source of vitamin B12 have been similarly disputed.5 Skeletal muscle protein (myosin) was increased in young rats fed spirulina as the sole dietary protein source compared with casein.49

Clinical data

A study of spirulina supplementation for 8 weeks demonstrated clinical improvement in weight gain and increased hemoglobin levels in malnourished children in the West African nation of Burkina Faso.50 Similar results have been demonstrated among children who are HIV-positive.51 In elderly Koreans, spirulina 8 g/day for 16 weeks had a variety of positive effects (cholesterol, antioxidant status, interleukin [IL]-2 and IL-6 levels) observed in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.52 In a study of athletic training, spirulina increased time to fatigue, decreased carbohydrate oxidation rate, and increased fat oxidation rate, leading to an increase in exercise performance.53

Hyperlipidemia

Animal data

Experiments in rats suggest that C-phycocyanin exhibits hypocholesterolemic action.54 In rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet, spirulina (1% or 5% in diet) lowered serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) at 8 weeks. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) was markedly increased.55

Clinical data

Two small clinical studies examined the role of spirulina in hyperlipidemia secondary to nephrotic syndrome. Both populations showed an improved lipid profile with spirulina supplementation; however, the control group in 1 experiment also showed improvement. The gamma linolenic acid content of spirulina may have played a role in the mechanism of action.56, 57 A study in type 2 diabetes patients reported a reduction in triglycerides with 8 g/day of spirulina.58 In normal volunteers, 4.5 g/day of spirulina for 6 weeks lowered blood pressure, total cholesterol, LDL, and increased HDL.59, 60 A 15-day study in healthy volunteers found that 5 g/day of spirulina produced a significant reduction (−20%, P = 0.04) in postprandial triglyceride levels compared with baseline. Subgroup analysis found that triglyceride reduction was greatest in 10 to 12 year old study participants.112

Pooled results reported in a systematic review and meta-analysis of 7 randomized controlled trials (N=522) evaluating spirulina effects on lipid parameters supported efficacy in improving total cholesterol (weighed mean difference [WMD], −46.76 mg/dL; P<0.001), LDL (WMD, −41.32 mg/dL; P<0.001), triglycerides (WMD, −44.23 mg/dL; P<0.001), and HDL (WMD, +6.06 mg/dL; P=0.001); an effect that was found to be independent of dose. Diagnoses of participants included in trials were type 2 diabetes, ischemic heart disease, overweight, nephrotic syndrome, and HIV with one trial enrolling volunteers. No adverse events were reported for any of the dosages that ranged from 1 to 10 g/day and for a duration of 2 and 12 months.114

Immune system effects

Experimental and animal data

Most in vitro and animal experiments have suggested immunostimulatory effects; however, 1 study found a spirulina extract to be immunosuppressive.61 Activation of monocytes and macrophages62, 63 as well as augmentation of interleukin and interferon production, have been demonstrated.64 Intestinal epithelial lymphocytes of aged mice treated with spirulina were increased compared with the control aged group.65 An ex vivo study of NK cells from spirulina-treated healthy patients showed increased NK activity, which was confirmed by a second study in which NK cell and T-cell markers were increased by spirulina.66

Clinical data

A clinical study in healthy men found that oral administration of spirulina for 3 months resulted in enhanced interferon production and natural killer (NK) cell capacity.25 A clinical trial in elderly patients showed positive effects on anemia and immunosenescence after 6 and 12 weeks of supplementation.67 The immunostimulatory effects appear to be largely mediated by spirulina polysaccharides.62, 63

Prevention of toxicity due to metals or organic compounds

Animal data

A 5% spirulina-supplemented diet prevented carbon tetrachloride-induced fatty liver in rats.68 Cadmium toxicity in rats was reduced by spirulina, as measured by liver histopathology.70 Mercuric chloride-induced oxidative stress in mice was blocked by spirulina at 800 mg/kg orally for 40 days.71 Lead acetate damage to rats was minimized by spirulina via normalizing plasma and liver lipid levels, as well as via its antioxidant effect.72 A protein extract and purified phycocyanin protected neuroblastoma cells from iron-induced toxicity.73 Spirulina pretreatment protected mice against acetaminophen and galactosamine-induced liver damage.74 Liver and kidney enzyme markers of toxicity were reduced by spirulina following 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide insult to rats.75 Spirulina decreased cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats, an effect attributed to an antioxidant action.76 Gentamicin-induced kidney damage in rats was reversed by intraperitoneal spirulina 1 g/kg daily.77 In pregnant mice, teratogenicity due to cadmium was reduced by 125 to 500 mg/kg of spirulina by intragastric administration for 17 days of gestation.78 Mutagenicity of cyclophosphamide in mice pretreated with spirulina was reduced.79

Clinical data

In a case series of 3 patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, 4.5 g/day of spirulina for 3 months improved ALT values and lipid profiles.69 In a small, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, spirulina plus zinc increased urinary excretion of arsenic and decreased arsenic hair-content in people with long-term exposure to arsenic.80

Other uses

Animal data

C-phycocyanin inhibited platelet aggregation in ex vivo experiments.91 In mice with zymosan-induced arthritis, phycocyanin exerted a scavenging action against reactive oxygen species and anti-inflammatory activity.92 Similar experiments with complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis found 800 mg/kg of oral spirulina effective in reducing inflammation.93 In rats, collagen-induced arthritis was inhibited by 400 mg/kg of spirulina.94 Osteoporosis was inhibited in rosiglitazone-treated rats by 500 mg/kg/day of oral spirulina.95 A rat study showed evidence that spirulina could protect neural stem cells and promote their growth96; however, an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) support network did not find the evidence compelling for use in ALS.97 Pretreatment with spirulina 180 mg/kg orally in a rat cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury model reduced neurologic deficits and histological changes.99 A polysaccharide extract of spirulina was antiangiogenic in a mouse corneal model.100 Spirulina also has been reported to protect mouse and human bone marrow cells against gamma radiation.23, 76, 87, 101, 102, 103

Clinical data

Spirulina supplementation (3 g/day) was ineffective against idiopathic chronic fatigue in a small study.98

Dosing

There is insufficient clinical data to guide dosing of spirulina for therapeutic effect. Spirulina has typically been studied in daily dosage of 1 to 10 g for 2 to 12 months.22, 50, 111, 112, 114

Pregnancy / Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Spirulina may contain more than 180 mcg of mercury per 20 g19 and should be avoided.

Interactions

None well documented. An antiplatelet effect has been demonstrated in vitro but was not clinically evaluated.91

Adverse Reactions

Few reports of adverse reactions are available. Case reports of immunoblistering104 and rhabdomyolysis105 linked to spirulina have been published. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) may contain the amino acid phenylalanine; therefore, people with phenylketonuria should avoid spirulina.5 A case of spirulina-associated hepatotoxicity has been reported.106 Hepatotoxic microcystins and neurotoxic anatoxin-a are produced by a number of cyanobacteria and have been reported as spirulina contaminants.107, 108 Other contaminants include the heavy metals mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and lead, as well as microbes cultivated on fermented animal waste.19, 109 There may be a potential for adverse reactions in people with autoimmune disorders who consume immunostimulatory herbal preparations.110

Toxicology

Information is limited. Spirulina is considered nontoxic to humans at usually consumed amounts.

References

1. Kulshreshtha A, Zacharia AJ, Jarouliya U, Bhadauriya P, Prasad GB, Bisen PS. Spirulina in health care management. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2008;9(5):400-405.18855693
2. Ciferri O. Spirulina, the edible microorganism. Microbiol Rev. 1983;47(4):551-578.6420655
3. Ciferri O, Tiboni O. The biochemistry and industrial potential of Spirulina. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1985;39:503-526.3933408
4. Dillon JC, Phuc AP, Dubacq JP. Nutritional value of the alga Spirulina. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1995;77:32-46.7732699
5. Robb-Nicholson C. By the way, doctor. I read that spirulina is the next wonder vitamin. What can you tell me about it?Harv Womens Health Watch. 2006;14(3):8.
6. Godia F, Albiol J, Montesinos JL, et al. MELISSA: a loop of interconnected bioreactors to develop life support in space. J Biotechnol. 2002;99(3):319-330.12385718
7. Khan Z, Bhadouria P, Bisen PS. Nutritional and therapeutic potential of Spirulina. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2005;6(5):373-379.16248810
8. Lumsden J, Hall DO. Soluble & membrane-bound superoxide dismutases in a blue-green algae (Spirulina) and spinach. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1974;58(1):35-41.4364622
9. Mitchell GV, Grundel E, Jenkins M, Blakely SR. Effects of graded dietary levels of Spirulina maxima on vitamins A and E in male rats. J Nutr. 1990;120(10):1235-1240.2213251
10. Wang J, Wang Y, Wang Z, et al. Vitamin A equivalence of spirulina beta-carotene in Chinese adults as assessed by using a stable-isotope reference method. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(6):1730-1737.18541562
11. Kapoor R, Mehta U. Utilization of beta-carotene from Spirulina platensis by rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 1993;43(1):1-7.
12. Maranesi M, Barzanti V, Carenini G, Gentili P. Nutritional studies on Spirulina maxima. Acta Vitaminol Enzymol. 1984;6(4):295-304.6442827
13. Patil G, Chethana S, Madhusudhan MC, Raghavarao KS. Fractionation and purification of the phycobiliproteins fromSpirulina platensis. Bioresour Technol. 2008;99(15):7393-7396.18295479
14. Yoshikawa N, Belay A. Single-laboratory validation of a method for the determination of c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin in Spirulina (Arthrospira) supplements and raw materials by spectrophotometry. J AOAC Int. 2008;91(3):524-529.18567296
15. Otles S, Pire R. Fatty acid composition of chlorella and spirulina microalgae species. J AOAC Int. 2001;84(6):1708-1714.11767135
16. Herrero M, Vicente MJ, Cifuentes A, Ibáñez E. Characterization by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry of the lipid fraction of Spirulina platensis pressurized ethanol extract. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2007;21(11):1729-1738.17487827
17. Kapoor R, Mehta U. Iron status and growth of rats fed different dietary iron sources. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 1993;44(1):29-34.
18. Kapoor R, Mehta U. Effect of supplementation of blue green algae (Spirulina) on outcome of pregnancy in rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 1993;43(1):29-35.
19. Johnson PE, Shubert LE. Availability of iron to rats from Spirulina, a blue-green alga. Nutr Res. 1986;6(1):85.
20. Hayashi T, Hayashi K, Maeda M, Kojima I. Calcium spirulan, an inhibitor of enveloped virus replication, from a blue-green alga, Spirulina platensis. J Nat Prod. 1996;59(1):83-87.
21. Karkos PD, Leong SC, Karkos CD, Sivaji N, Assimakopoulos DA. Spirulina in clinical practice: evidence-based human applications. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2008 Sep 14 [Epub ahead of print].18955364
22. Labhe RU, Mani UV, Iyer UM, Mishra M, Jani K, Bhattacharya A. The effect of spirulina in the treatment of bronchial asthma. J Nutraceutical Functional Med Foods. 2001;3(pt 4):53-62.
23. Mao TK, Van de Water J, Gershwin ME. Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients. J Med Food. 2005;8(1):27-30.15857205
24. Cingi C, Conk-Dalay M, Cakli H, Bal C. The effects of spirulina on allergic rhinitis. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;265(10):1219-1223.18343939
25. Teas J, Hebert JR, Fitton JH, Zimba PV. Algae—a poor man's HAART?Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(4):507-510.15050097
26. Hernández-Corona A, Nieves I, Meckes M, Chamorro G, Barron BL. Antiviral activity of Spirulina maxima against herpes simplex virus type 2. Antiviral Res. 2002;56(3):279-285.12406511
27. Shih SR, Tsai KN, Li YS, Chueh CC, Chan EC. Inhibition of enterovirus 71-induced apoptosis by allophycocyanin isolated from a blue-green alga Spirulina platensis. J Med Virol. 2003;70(1):119-125.12629652
28. Ozdemir G, Karabay NU, Dalay MC, Pazarbasi B. Antibacterial activity of volatile component and various extracts of Spirulina platensis. Phytother Res. 2004;18(9):754-757.15478198
29. El-Sheekh MM, Mahmoud YA, Abo-Shady AM, Hamza W. Efficacy of Rhodotorula glutinis and Spirulina platensis carotenoids in immunopotentiation of mice infected with Candida albicans SC5314 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 35. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2010;55(1):61-67.20336506
30. Subhashini J, Mahipal SV, Reddy MC, Mallikarjuna Reddy M, Rachamallu A, Reddanna P. Molecular mechanisms in C-Phycocyanin induced apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line-K562. Biochem Pharmacol. 2004;68(3):453-462.15242812
31. Li B, Gao MH, Zhang XC, Chu XM. Molecular immune mechanism of C-phycocyanin from Spirulina platensis induces apoptosis in HeLa cells in vitro. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 2006;43(pt 3):155-164.
32. Li B, Zhang X, Gao M, Chu X. Effects of CD59 on antitumoral activities of phycocyanin from Spirulina platensis. Biomed Pharmacother. 2005;59(10):551-560.16271846
33. Roy KR, Arunasree KM, Reddy NP, Dheeraj B, Reddy GV, Reddanna P. Alteration of mitochondrial membrane potential by Spirulina platensis C-phycocyanin induces apoptosis in the doxorubicinresistant human hepatocellular-carcinoma cell line HepG2. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 2007;47(pt 3):159-167.17274761
34. Oh SH, Ahn J, Kang DH, Lee HY. The Effect of ultrasonificated extracts of Spirulina maxima on the anticancer activity. Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2011;13(2):205-214.20405153
35. Chen T, Wong YS, Zheng W. Induction of G1 cell cycle arrest and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells by selenium-enriched Spirulina extract. Biomed Pharmacother. 2009 Oct 27 [Epub ahead of print].19926246
36. Schwartz J, Shklar G. Regression of experimental hamster cancer by beta carotene and algae extracts. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1987;45(6):510-515.3108474
37. Schwartz J, Shklar G, Reid S, Trickler D. Prevention of experimental oral cancer by extracts of Spirulina-Dunaliella algae. Nutr Cancer. 1988;11(2):127-134.
38. Shklar G, Schwartz J. Tumor necrosis factor in experimental cancer regression with alphatocopherol, beta-carotene, canthaxanthin and algae extract. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 1988;24(5):839-850.
39. Akao Y, Ebihara T, Masuda H, et al. Enhancement of antitumor natural killer cell activation by orally administered Spirulina extract in mice. Cancer Sci. 2009;100(8):1494-1501.19432881
40. Grawish ME. Effects of Spirulina platensis extract on Syrian hamster cheek pouch mucosa painted with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. Oral Oncol. 2008;44(10):956-962.18262461
41. Grawish ME, Zaher AR, Gaafar AI, Nasif WA. Long-term effect of Spirulina platensis extract on DMBA-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis (immunohistochemical study). Med Oncol. 2010;27(1):20-28.19156551
42. Ismail MF, Ali DA, Fernando A, et al. Chemoprevention of rat liver toxicity and carcinogenesis by Spirulina. Int J Biol Sci. 2009;5(4):377-387.19521547
43. Mathew B, Sankaranarayanan R, Nair PP, et al. Evaluation of chemoprevention of oral cancer with Spirulina fusiformis. Nutr Cancer. 1995;24(2):197-202.8584455
44. Muthuraman P, Senthilkumar R, Srikumar K. Alterations in beta-islets of Langerhans in alloxan-induced diabetic rats by marine Spirulina platensis. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2009;24(6):1253-1256.19912059
45. Mani UV, Desai S, Iyer I. Studies on the long-term effect of spirulina supplementation on serum lipid profile and glycated proteins in NIDDM patients. J Nutraceutical Funct Med Foods. 2000;2(3):25-32.
46. Parikh P, Mani U, Iyer U. Role of spirulina in the control of glycemia and lipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Med Food. 2001;4(4):193-199.12639401
47. ACSH News & Views. 1982;3(3):3.
48. FDA Consumer. 1981;15:3.
49. Voltarelli FA, de Mello MA. Spirulina enhanced the skeletal muscle protein in growing rats. Eur J Nutr. 2008;47(7):393-400.18807105
50. Simpore J, Kabore F, Zongo F, et al. Nutrition rehabilitation of undernourished children utilizing Spiruline and Misola. Nutr J. 2006;5:3.
51. Simpore J, Zongo F, Kabore F, et al. Nutrition rehabilitation of HIV-infected and HIV-negative undernourished children utilizing spirulina. Ann Nutr Metab. 2005;49(6):373-380.16219988
52. Park HJ, Lee YJ, Ryu HK, Kim MH, Chung HW, Kim WY. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study to establish the effects of spirulina in elderly Koreans. Ann Nutr Metab. 2008;52(4):322-328.18714150
53. Kalafati M, Jamurtas AZ, Nikolaidis MG, et al. Ergogenic and antioxidant effects of spirulina supplementation in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(1):142-151.20010119
54. Nagaoka S, Shimizu K, Kaneko H, et al. A novel protein C-phycocyanin plays a crucial role in the hypocholesterolemic action of Spirulina platensis concentrate in rats. J Nutr. 2005;135(10):2425-2430.16177207
55. Cheong SH, Kim MY, Sok DE, et al. Spirulina prevents atherosclerosis by reducing hypercholesterolemia in rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2010;56(1):34-40.20354344
56. Khanam A, Rashid H. Effect of spirulina on lipid profile in patients with glomerulonephritis. Bangladesh Renal J. 2001;20:8-13.
57. Samuels R, Mani UV, Iyer UM, Nayak US. Hypocholesterolemic effect of spirulina in patients with hyperlipidemic nephrotic syndrome. J Med Food. 2002;5(2):91-96.12487756
58. Lee EH, Park JE, Choi YJ, Huh KB, Kim WY. A randomized study to establish the effects of spirulina in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. Nutr Res Pract. 2008;2(4):295-300.20016733
59. Juárez-Oropeza MA, Mascher D, Torres-Durán PV, Farias JM, Paredes-Carbajal MC. Effects of dietary Spirulina on vascular reactivity. J Med Food. 2009;12(1):15-20.19298191
60. Torres-Duran PV, Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Juarez-Oropeza MA. Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of Mexican population: a preliminary report. Lipids Health Dis. 2007;6:33.18039384
61. Rasool M, Sabina EP. Appraisal of immunomodulatory potential of Spirulina fusiformis: an in vivo and in vitro study. J Nat Med. 2009;63(2):169-175.19093070
62. Pugh N, Ross SA, ElSohly HN, ElSohly MA, Pasco DS. Isolation of three high molecular weight polysaccharide preparations with potent immunostimulatory activity from Spirulina platensis, Aphanizomen flos-aquae and Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Planta Med. 2001;67(8):737-742.11731916
63. Balachandran P, Pugh ND, Ma G, Pasco DS. Toll-like receptor 2-dependent activation of monocytes by Spirulina polysaccharide and its immune enhancing action in mice. Int Immunopharmacol. 2006;6(12):1808-1814.17052671
64. Mao TK, Van de Water J, Gershwin ME. Effect of spirulina on the secretion of cytokines from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Med Food. 2000;3(3):135-140.19281334
65. Hayashi O, Katayanagi Y, Ishii K, Kato T. Flow cytometric analysis of age-related changes in intestine intraepithelial lymphocyte subsets and their functional preservation after feeding mice on spirulina. J Med Food. 2009;12(5):982-989.19857060
66. Nielsen CH, Balachandran P, Christensen O, et al. Enhancement of natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects by Immulina, a Spirulina extract enriched for Braun-type lipoproteins. Planta Med. 2010;76(16):1802-1808.20560112
67. Selmi C, Leung PS, Fischer L, et al. The effects of Spirulina on anemia and immune function in senior citizens. Cell Mol Immunol. 2011;8(3);248-254.21278762
68. Torres-Durán PV, Miranda-Zamora R, Paredes-Carbajal MC, Mascher D, Díaz-Zagoya JC, Juárez-Oropeza MA. Spirulina maxima prevents induction of fatty liver by carbon tetrachloride in the rat. Biochem Mol Biol Int. 1998;44(4):787-793.9584992
69. Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Torres-Duran PV, Juarez-Oropeza MA. Hepatoprotective effects of Spirulina maxima in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a case series. J Med Case Reports. 2010;4(1):103.20370930
70. Karadeniz A, Cemek M, Simsek N. The effects of Panax ginseng and Spirulina platensis on hepatotoxicity induced by cadmium in rats. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2009;72(1):231-235.18395256
71. Sharma MK, Sharma A, Kumar A, Kumar M. Spirulina fusiformis provides protection against mercuric chloride induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45(12):2412-2419.17706852
72. Ponce-Canchihuamán JC, Pérez-Méndez O, Hernández-Muñoz R, Torres-Durán PV, Juárez-Oropeza MA. Protective effects of Spirulina maxima on hyperlipidemia and oxidative-stress induced by lead acetate in the liver and kidney. Lipids Health Dis. 2010;9:35.20353607
73. Bermejo-Bescós P, Piñero-Estrada E, Villar del Fresno AM. Neuroprotection by Spirulina platensis protean extract and phycocyanin against iron-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Toxicol In Vitro. 2008;22(6):1496-1502.18572379
74. Lu J, Ren DF, Wang JZ, Sanada H, Egashira Y. Protection by dietary Spirulina platensis against D-galactosamine–and acetaminophen-induced liver injuries. Br J Nutr. 2010;103(11):1573-1576.20102673
75. Viswanadha VP, Sivan S, Rajendra Shenoi R. Protective effect of Spirulina against 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide induced toxicity. Mol Biol Rep. 2011;38(1):309-317.20352348
76. Mohan IK, Khan M, Shobha JC, et al. Protection against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by Spirulina in rats. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2006;58(6):802-808.16552571
77. Karadeniz A, Yildirim A, Simsek N, Kalkan Y, Celebi F. Spirulina platensis protects against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Phytother Res. 2008;22(11):1506-1510.18690652
78. Paniagua-Castro N, Escalona-Cardoso G, Hernández-Navarro D, Pérez-Pastén R, Chamorro-Cevallos G. Spirulina (Arthrospira) protects against cadmium-induced teratogenic damage in mice. J Med Food. 2011;14(4):398-404.21254891
79. Chamorro-Cevallos G, Garduño-Siciliano L, Barrón BL, Madrigal-Bujaidar E, Cruz-Vega DE, Pages N. Chemoprotective effect of Spirulina (Arthrospira) against cyclophosphamide-induced mutagenicity in mice. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46(2):567-574.17928122
80. Misbahuddin M, Islam AZ, Khandker S, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Islam N, Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2006;44(2):135-141.16615668
81. Chen T, Wong YS. In vitro antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of selenium-containing phycocyanin from selenium-enriched Spirulina platensis. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56(12):4352-4358.18522403
82. Dartsch PC. Antioxidant potential of selected Spirulina platensis preparations. Phytother Res. 2008;22(5):627-633.18398928
83. García-Martínez D, Rupérez FJ, Ugarte P, Barbas C. Tocopherol fate in plasma and liver of streptozotocin-treated rats that orally received antioxidants and Spirulina extracts. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2007;77(4):263-271.18271281
84. Gad AS, Khadrawy YA, El-Nekeety AA, Mohamed SR, Hassan NS, Abdel-Wahhab MA. Antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective effects of whey protein and Spirulina in rats. Nutrition. 2011;27(5):582-589.20708378
85. Riss J, Décordé K, Sutra T, et al. Phycobiliprotein C-phycocyanin from Spirulina platensis is powerfully responsible for reducing oxidative stress and NADPH oxidase expression induced by an atherogenic diet in hamsters. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55(19):7962-7967.17696484
86. Kim MY, Cheong SH, Lee JH, Kim MJ, Sok DE, Kim MR. Spirulina improves antioxidant status by reducing oxidative stress in rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet. J Med Food. 2010;13(2):420-426.20210608
87. Wu LC, Ho JA, Shieh MC, Lu IW. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of Spirulina and Chlorella water extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53(10):4207-4212.15884862
88. Deng R, Chow TJ. Hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory activities of microalgae Spirulina. Cardiovasc Ther. 2010;28(4):e33-e45.20633020
89. McCarty MF. Clinical potential of Spirulina as a source of phycocyanobilin. J Med Food. 2007;10(4):566-570.18158824
90. Shyam R, Singh SN, Vats P, et al. Wheat grass supplementation decreases oxidative stress in healthy subjects: a comparative study with spirulina. J Altern Complement Med. 2007;13(8):789-791.17983333
91. Hsiao G, Chou PH, Shen MY, Chou DS, Lin CH, Sheu JR. C-phycocyanin, a very potent and novel platelet aggregation inhibitor from Spirulina platensis. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53(20):7734-7740.16190625
92. Remirez D, González R, Merino N, Rodriguez S, Ancheta O. Inhibitory effects of Spirulina in zymosan-induced arthritis in mice. Mediators Inflamm. 2002;11(2):75-79.
93. Rasool M, Sabina EP, Lavanya B. Anti-inflammatory effect of Spirulina fusiformis on adjuvant-induced arthritis in mice. Biol Pharm Bull. 2006;29(12):2483-2487.17142986
94. Kumar N, Singh S, Patro N, Patro I. Evaluation of protective efficacy of Spirulina platensis against collagen-induced arthritis in rats. Inflammopharmacology. 2009;17(3):181-190.19390977
95. Gupta S, Hrishikeshvan HJ, Sehajpal PK. Spirulina protects against rosiglitazone induced osteoporosis in insulin resistance rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87(1):38-43.19896232
96. Bachstetter AD, Jernberg J, Schlunk A, et al. Spirulina promotes stem cell genesis and protects against LPS induced declines in neural stem cell proliferation. PLoS One. 2010;5(5):e10496.20463965
97. ALSUntangled Group. ALSUntangled No. 9: Blue-green algae (Spirulina) as a treatment for ALS. Amyotroph Lateral Scler. 2011;12(2):153-155.21323493
98. Baicus C, Baicus A. Spirulina did not ameliorate idiopathic chronic fatigue in four N-of-1 randomized controlled trials. Phytother Res. 2007;21(6):570-573.17335116
99. Thaakur S, Sravanthi R. Neuroprotective effect of Spirulina in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. J Neural Transm. 2010;117(9):1083-1091.20700612
100. Yang L, Wang Y, Zhou Q, et al. Inhibitory effects of polysaccharide extract from Spirulina platensis on corneal neovascularization. Mol Vis. 2009;15:1951-1961.19784394
101. Lu HK, Hsieh CC, Hsu JJ, Yang YK, Chou HN. Preventive effects of Spirulina platensis skeletal muscle damage under exercise-induced oxidative stress. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006;98(2):220-226.16944194
102. Qishen P, Guo BJ, Kolman A. Radioprotective effect of extract from Spirulina platensis in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test. Toxicol Lett. 1989;48(2):165-169.2505406
103. Klingler W, Kreja L, Nothdurft W, Selig C. Influence of different radioprotective compounds on radiotolerance and cell cycle distribution of human progenitor cells of granulocytopoiesis in vitro. Br J Haematol. 2002;119(1):244-254.12358931
104. Kraigher O, Wohl Y, Gat A, Brenner S. A mixed immunoblistering disorder exhibiting features of bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus foliaceus associated with Spirulina algae intake. Int J Dermatol. 2008;47(1):61-63.18173606
105. Mazokopakis EE, Karefilakis CM, Tsartsalis AN, Milkas AN, Ganotakis ES. Acute rhabdomyolysis caused by Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis ). Phytomedicine. 2008;15(6-7):525-527.18434120
106. Iwasa M, Yamamoto M, Tanaka Y, Kaito M, Adachi Y. Spirulina-associated hepatotoxicity. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97(12):3212-3213.12492223
107. Rawn DF, Niedzwiadek B, Lau BP, Saker M. Anatoxin-a and its metabolites in blue-green algae food supplements from Canada and Portugal. J Food Prot. 2007;70(3):776-779.17388076
108. Jiang Y, Xie P, Chen J, Liang G. Detection of the hepatotoxic microcystins in 36 kinds of cyanobacteria Spirulina food products in China. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2008;25(7):885-894.18569007
109. Wu JF, Pond WG. Amino acid composition and microbial contamination of Spirulina maxima, a blue-green alga, grown on the effluent of fermented animal wastes. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1981;27(2):151-159.6794684
110. Lee AN, Werth VP. Activation of autoimmunity following use of immunostimulatory herbal supplements. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(6):723-727.15210464
111. Grobler L, Siegfried N, Visser ME, Mahlungulu SSN, Volmink J. Nutritional interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality in people with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2:CD004536.2345055410.1002/14651858.CD004536.pub3
112. Torres-Durán PV, Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Ramos-Jiménez A, Hernández-Torres RP, Juárez-Oropeza MA. Effect of Spirulina maxima on postprandial lipemia in young runners: a preliminary report. J Med Food. 2012;15(8):753-757.22738038
113. Jensen GS, Attridge VL, Beaman JL, Guthrie J, Ehmann A, Benson KF. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of an aqueous cyanophyta extract derived from Arthrospira platensis: contribution to bioactivities by the non-phycocyanin aqueous fraction. J Med Food. 2015;18(5):535-541.25764268
114. Serban MC, Sahebkar A, Dragan S, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of spirulina supplementation on plasma lipid concentrations. Clin Nutr. 2016;35(4):842-851.
115. Szulinska M, Gibas-Dorna M, Miller-Kasprzak E, et al. Spirulina maxima improves insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, and total antioxidant status in obese patients with well-treated hypertension: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2017;21:2473-2481.28617537

Disclaimer

This information relates to an herbal, vitamin, mineral or other dietary supplement. This product has not been reviewed by the FDA to determine whether it is safe or effective and is not subject to the quality standards and safety information collection standards that are applicable to most prescription drugs. This information should not be used to decide whether or not to take this product. This information does not endorse this product as safe, effective, or approved for treating any patient or health condition. This is only a brief summary of general information about this product. It does NOT include all information about the possible uses, directions, warnings, precautions, interactions, adverse effects, or risks that may apply to this product. This information is not specific medical advice and does not replace information you receive from your health care provider. You should talk with your health care provider for complete information about the risks and benefits of using this product.

This product may adversely interact with certain health and medical conditions, other prescription and over-the-counter drugs, foods, or other dietary supplements. This product may be unsafe when used before surgery or other medical procedures. It is important to fully inform your doctor about the herbal, vitamins, mineral or any other supplements you are taking before any kind of surgery or medical procedure. With the exception of certain products that are generally recognized as safe in normal quantities, including use of folic acid and prenatal vitamins during pregnancy, this product has not been sufficiently studied to determine whether it is safe to use during pregnancy or nursing or by persons younger than 2 years of age.

Copyright © 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health

Further information

Always consult your healthcare provider to ensure the information displayed on this page applies to your personal circumstances.

Medical Disclaimer

Add to My Med List

More about spirulina

Consumer resources

Related treatment guides

Drugs.com Mobile Apps

The easiest way to lookup drug information, identify pills, check interactions and set up your own personal medication records. Available for Android and iOS devices.

Explore Apps
Hide