Skip to main content

Peppermint

Scientific Name(s): Mentha x piperita L.
Common Name(s): Menthol, Peppermint

Medically reviewed by Drugs.com. Last updated on Dec 19, 2022.

Clinical Overview

Use

Peppermint, peppermint oil, and its menthol extract have been evaluated for use in GI conditions, including nonserious constipation or diarrhea associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) to reduce global symptoms of pain, and bloating; antispasmodic properties of the oil and menthol extract has led to use in endoscopic GI procedures. Quality clinical trials are lacking to recommend use for treatment of dyspepsia. Menthol, a component of peppermint oil, is often added to respiratory products to provide subjective decongestant action and is used as a vasodilatory agent to aid in penetration of topically applied anesthetic drugs. Limited or equivocal data are available for other uses.

Dosing

Up to 1,200 mg daily (180 to 400 mg 3 times daily) of peppermint oil in enteric-coated capsules has been used to treat nonserious constipation and diarrhea associated with IBS.

Contraindications

Peppermint oil should not be administered to patients with gastroesophageal reflux or active gastric ulcers because the oil decreases esophageal sphincter pressure. Peppermint oil should not be applied to the face, especially under the nose of a child or infant. Enteric-coated preparations are not recommended for use in children younger than 8 years.

Pregnancy/Lactation

Adverse reactions, particularly with higher doses, have been documented with use of peppermint. Avoid internal use because of emmenagogue effects.

Interactions

Peppermint oil may inhibit cytochrome P450 (CYP-450) 3A4; use caution when administering with drugs metabolized by this enzyme.

Adverse Reactions

Peppermint oil may cause allergic reactions characterized by contact dermatitis, cutaneous burning, flushing, lacrimation, and headache, and may worsen the symptoms of heartburn, hiatus hernias, and stomach ulcers. Cutaneous and mucosal burns and skin necrosis have been reported with topical formulations.

Toxicology

Peppermint has generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status in amounts used in seasoning or flavoring, but medicinal use of the plant can cause adverse reactions. (See Adverse Reactions.)

Scientific Family

Botany

Peppermint, a well-known perennial, is a prototypical member of the mint family.USDA 2018 Like all mints, it has a square, purple-green stem with dark- or light-green leaves and purple- and lilac-colored flowers. The plant generally is sterile and spreads by runners. There are a variety of peppermint types cultivated worldwide. Pharmaceutical oil is derived from 2 varieties: white (light-green leaves) and black (dark-green leaves) peppermint. Peppermint oil is not to be confused with Japanese peppermint oil, which is similar in odor but derived from a different species.Briggs 1993 Peppermint is a hybrid of Mentha spicata L. (spearmint) and Mentha aquatica L.

History

Peppermint and its oil were first described in England in 1696 and have been used in Eastern and Western traditional medicine as an antispasmodic, aromatic, and antiseptic in the treatment of cancers, colds, cramps, indigestion, nausea, sore throat, and toothaches. Today, the oil is widely used as a flavoring in chewing gum, cigarettes, mouthwash, pharmaceuticals, and toothpaste. It is also used as an ingredient in cough and cold preparations and as a carminative for IBS. Menthol, a component of peppermint oil, is also found in numerous antipruritic, antiseptic, and local anesthetic preparations.Briggs 1993

Chemistry

Peppermint oil is extracted from the plant by steam distillation.Briggs 1993 The chemistry of peppermint oil is complex and highly variable, with more than 100 components isolated. The relative concentrations vary depending on climate, cultivar, cycle stage, age, season, and geographic location.Ayaz 2017 Oxygenated monoterpenes (79.5%), monoterpene hydrocarbons (16.23%), and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (2.44%) are the most abundant categories of chemicals. Peppermint yields 0.1% to 1% of volatile oil composed primarily of menthol (29% to 48%), menthone (18% to 33%), and menthyl acetate (3% to 10%), with lesser amounts of limonene (8%), pulegone (1.6% to 3.99%), piperitone (1.4% to 3.2%), 1,8-cineole (1.98% to 2.8%), linalool (2.64%), iso-pulegol (2.4%), and caryophyllene (1.44% to 1.95%).Abdellatief 2017, Bellassoued 2018, Leung 1980 Pulegone, contained in various forms of peppermint, should not exceed a concentration of 1% because it can be toxic.Nair 2001 The biosynthetic pathway of the terpenoids is well characterized, with pulegone being a branch point on the way to both menthol and menthofuran.Rios-Estepa 2008 Peppermint harvest and drying have been thoroughly studied.Zheljazkov 2010 The profile of volatiles is affected by the presence of an endosymbiotic fungus.Mucciarelli 2007 Major bioactive constituents of the essential oil of peppermint and other Lamiaceae species are hydroxycinnamic acids (ie, caffeic, chlorogenic, ferulic, and rosmarinic acids) and flavonoids. Peppermint leaf extract is characterized by a high hydroxycinnamic acid content (157.45 mg/g), comprised primarily of rosmarinic acid (61.05 mg/g), which is likely responsible for much of acetylcholinesterase inhibitory and antioxidant effects of the plant.Vladimir-Knezevic 2014

Uses and Pharmacology

Absorption of menthol is rapid following oral administration, and elimination is mainly via bile.(Yamaguchi 1994) Menthol-glucuronide has been identified as the main metabolite, in addition to mono- or dihydroxylated menthol derivatives.(Grigoleit 2005)

Aerobic capacity

Clinical data

The effect of peppermint essential oil on exercise and cardiorespiratory performance was investigated in 7 physically active young adults in a randomized, single-blind crossover study. In contrast to an earlier study, no significant beneficial effect on performance was observed.(Shepherd 2017) Similarly, a randomized, controlled, single-blind study in 106 healthy individuals revealed no significant changes in any of the spirometry measures following inhalation of peppermint, rosemary, or eucalyptus essential oils.(Koteles 2018)

Antibacterial activity

In vitro data

Peppermint oil possesses antibacterial activity in vitro. In one study, various commercial peppermint oil preparations exhibited a wide range of activity against different species of bacteria.(Lis-Balchin 1997) The essential oil and its constituents (eg, menthol, menthone) have displayed activity against Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori, methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas spp., Enterobacter aerogenes, and Salmonella enteritidis.(Imai 2001, Işcan 2002, Osawa 1999) Weak antifungal activity has also been shown in vitro.(Işcan 2002) Biofilm development and growth of Listeria was inhibited by peppermint extracts.(Sandasi 2010)

Antioxidant properties

Free radical scavenging and inhibition of lipid peroxidation appear to be the main mechanisms of peppermint's pharmacological actions.

Animal data

In rats, protection against chemically induced renal toxicity and hepatotoxicity has been demonstrated with a 40 mg/kg dose of peppermint oil, providing comparable antioxidant activity to that of silymarin 50 mg/kg.(Bellassoued 2018) In a study in rats with streptozotocin-nicotinamide–induced type 2 diabetes, free radical scavenging activity of peppermint essential oil was between that of ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole.(Abdellatief 2017)

Antiparasitic activity

Animal and in vitro data

In an in vitro study, Giardia lamblia trophozoites were inhibited by peppermint extracts.(Vidal 2007) In a mouse Schistosomiasis model, peppermint oil demonstrated antiparasitic and immunomodulatory effects that contributed to the pathophysiological control of the infection.(Zaia 2016)

Antiviral activity

In vitro and ex vivo data

Aqueous extracts of peppermint and several other Lamiaceae inhibited HIV through interference with viral entry, without altering cell viability. Several other enveloped viruses were similarly affected.(Geuenich 2008)

Cancer

Animal and in vitro data

In vitro, menthol enhanced vitamin D–mediated growth inhibition of prostate cancer cells by cooperatively modulating expression of bcl-2 and p21 proteins.(Park 2009) In mice with benzo[a]pyrene-induced lung carcinogenicity, an extract of M. piperita leaves reduced the incidence of lung tumors and tumor multiplicity.(Samarth 2006)

CNS

A study evaluating the mechanism by which menthone promotes ambulation in mice suggests the effect is mediated by the dopamine system; an additive effect on ambulation was observed when menthone was administered with bupropion, a dopamine uptake inhibitor; also, dopamine antagonists attenuated the effects of menthone. These findings suggest the mechanism underlying the ambulation-promoting effect of menthone could overlap with that of bupropion.(Umezu 2009) Neurochemical profiling of mint extracts in gamma–aminobutyric acid (GABA), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and antioxidant systems has also been performed.(López 2010, Vladimir-Knezeic 2014) Extracts from peppermint exhibited potent, dose-dependent AChE inhibitory activity and potent, total antioxidant capacity.(Vladimir-Knezeic 2014)

Alertness

Clinical data

Peppermint oil aroma has shown an antisoporific effect.(Norrish 2005, Umezu 2001) In studies of healthy volunteers exposed to essential oil fragrances, odor pleasantness and subjective level of stress were factors significantly influencing cognitive performance,(Heuberger 2010) with an increase in attentional control demonstrated with an increase in attentional control demonstrated with peppermint oil compared to lavender oil.(Colzato 2014)

Anxiety

Clinical data

In patients who presented to the emergency department with acute coronary syndrome, administration of peppermint essential oil aromatherapy for 1 hour significantly reduced anxiety compared to patients who received placebo (P=0.02) in a randomized, controlled, unblinded study.(Soleimani 2022)

Dementia

Clinical data

In healthy volunteers, memory performance was enhanced with peppermint oil aroma, but not oil of ylang-ylang.(Moss 2008) Peppermint oil aromatherapy has been studied for use in dementia by the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group, with results from only one identified trial showing benefit(Thorgrimsen 2003); an updated review of randomized controlled trials for dementia has been published, but no data regarding peppermint oil were identified for inclusion.(Forrester 2014)

Opioid withdrawal

Animal data

An extract of the aerial parts of peppermint (50, 100, 200, and 500 mg/kg) significantly reduced symptoms of morphine withdrawal in addicted animals.(Ebrahimie 2015)

Pain/Sensory effects

The cooling effect of menthol is explained by the direct effect of low doses on the "cold receptor" known as transient receptor potential melastatin type 8 (TRPM8), a distant relative of the vanilloid receptors that sense pain and noxious high temperatures.(Behrendt 2004, Mahieu 2007, McKemy 2002, Peier 2002, Renner 2012) Binding of menthol to TRPM8 induces calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in the cell.(Mahieu 2007) Menthol is an agonist of TRPM8.(Behrendt 2004) Pain sensation effects have been shown to occur at higher menthol concentrations as a result of the activation of transient receptor potential ankyrin type 1 (TRPA1), which is activated by both menthol and nicotine in a reversible, nonreactive manner.(Renner 2012)

In vitro data

Nicotine-induced activation of TRPA1 was desensitized by the application of menthol in cell cultures.(Renner 2012)

Clinical data

Topical application of low concentrations of menthol causes a cooling sensation, while higher concentrations cause local anesthesia and irritation.(Eccles 1994, Hatem 2006, Wasner 2004) These attributes of menthol have been evaluated in constructed pain models.(Hatem 2006, Wasner 2004) The irritant effect of menthol causes local vasodilation,(Eccles 1994, Liu 2005, Wasner 2004) which can aid penetration of topical anaesthetic drugs; higher diffusion of tetracaine has been demonstrated with menthol-enhanced gel.(Liu 2005) Menthol's sensory effects are utilized in commercial topical musculoskeletal products.(Eccles 1994, Kraemer 2005)

Peppermint oil reduced pain sensitivity in patients with headaches(Göbel 1994), was an effective counter odor stimulant for the prevention of alliaceous migraines,(Roussos 2014) and significantly reduced pain scores during colonoscopy(Shavaki 2012) and after IV catheterization.(Akbari 2019) In a triple-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study of adults with a diagnosis of migraine headache (N=35 [intention-to-treat population]; 118 migraine attacks), cutaneously applied menthol provided a significant reduction in pain intensity within the first 2 hours of migraine compared to placebo (P=0.01). However, no significant difference in mean pain intensity was observed between groups at later time points. After 2 hours, the percentages of patients who were pain free (38.3% vs 12.1%; P=0.001), experienced pain relief (58.3% vs 17.2%; P=0), or had a pain-free response during the first 24 hours (33.3% vs 12.1%; P=0.008) and at 48 hours (28.3% vs 8.6%; P=0.008) were significantly higher with menthol. Rates of nausea/vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia decreased significantly in both groups 2 hours after treatment, with lower incidences in the placebo group. Adverse events were reported in 15% and 7% in the menthol and placebo groups, respectively. Cutaneous burning sensation (8.3% of attacks), lacrimation (5% of attacks), and aggravation of headache (1.6% of attacks) were most common with menthol; 2 patients in the menthol group discontinued the study due to severe burning sensation and aggravation of headache.(Borhani Haghighi 2010)

Diabetes/Metabolic effects

Animal data

Glycemia was significantly lowered with 30-day administration of peppermint juice (0.29 g/kg/day; 70 kg human equivalent dose of 200 mL/day) in offspring of diabetic rat dams (P=0.0001) but not in controls. Additionally, offspring of control and diabetic rat dams treated with peppermint juice exhibited significantly improved cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) compared to control and diabetic dams receiving only vehicle (water). No significant differences were observed in lipid parameters between the offspring of nondiabetic and diabetic dams receiving peppermint juice, except for HDL values, which were observed to be significantly higher (P=0) in the nondiabetic offspring.(Barbalho 2011) In a diabetic rat model, peppermint essential oil significantly improved blood glucose, insulin, and C-peptide compared to controls (P<0.05 for all), with an 80 mg/kg dose providing an overall better effect than both a 40 mg/kg dose and positive control (the standard hypoglycemic agent glibenclamide). These results were supported by protective effects demonstrated in hepatic and pancreatic tissue, as well as by changes in hepatocyte and beta-cell immunology and insulin gene expression. Hematologic parameters (ie, total erythrocyte count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, white blood cell count, platelets) were also significantly increased in diabetic rats treated with either peppermint essential oil (40 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg) or positive control (glibenclamide) compared to diabetic controls (P<0.05).(Abdellatief 2017) In a study of adult Wistar rats, weight loss due to heat stress was mitigated with administration of peppermint extract, with 300 mg/kg and 600 mg/kg doses producing the greatest weight gains (+11 g and +16 g, respectively) compared to controls and compared to the 75 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg doses (P<0.05). Additionally, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL were significantly lower with peppermint extract administration. However, administration of peppermint extract significantly increased glucose levels in a dose-dependent manner.(Mesbahzadeh 2015)

GI use

Menthol (the main component of peppermint oil) plasma levels exhibited dose proportionality in children 7 to 12 years of age with functional abdominal pain; indicative of linear pharmacokinetics. When corrected for the weight-adjusted dose, no difference was observed in total systemic exposure, Cmax, or Tmax for the 180, 360, or 540 mg dose of peppermint oil. The mean Tmax ranged from 1.7 to 2.9 hours following administration of a delayed-release formulation. A possible dose-related difference in the mean elimination half-life was observed (2.1 hours for the low dose vs 4.6 hours for the high dose). High interindividual variability in dose-exposure relationship was observed among the 30 participants, possibly due to enterohepatic recycling with subsequent deconjugation in the intestinal lumen and drug reabsorption. Kinetics were unaffected by age, sex, race, ethnicity, demographic variables, or anthropometric values.(Shulman 2022)

Antiemetic activity

Animal and in vitro data

In vitro, an allosteric effect of menthol and peppermint oil on 5-HT3 receptors may explain its antiemetic action; however, the effect was weak and may not be clinically relevant.(Heimes 2011) Animal models support the use of peppermint oil in reducing nausea.(Golembiewski 2005)

Clinical data

Clinical trials have shown that aromatherapy with menthol and peppermint oil may be more effective than placebo in treating postoperative nausea(Tate 1997) but is no more effective than standard treatments.(Anderson 2004, Golembiewski 2005)

In a small study (N=33), peppermint oil aromatherapy was no better than placebo in averting postoperative nausea.(Anderson 2004) Similar results were reported by an evidence-based review of aromatherapy for postoperative nausea and vomiting, which concluded there is no reliable evidence supporting use of peppermint oil for this indication.(Hines 2012) In contrast, another study supported decreased frequency and severity of postoperative nausea and vomiting (P=0.001 for each) with inhalation of peppermint oil compared to placebo in 60 patients who underwent open-heart surgery.(Maghami 2020)

Peppermint was identified as one of the 4 most common herbs used for pregnancy-related nausea/vomiting by certified or licensed midwives in state-wide surveys conducted in California, Texas, and North Carolina.(Dennehy 2010)

The effects of peppermint oil on chemotherapy-associated nausea, vomiting, and retching were explored in adult cancer patients in an open-label quasi-randomized controlled pilot study. Application of 3% peppermint oil between the upper lip and nose as aromatherapy 3 times daily for 5 days following chemotherapy led to statistically significant improvement in the nausea-vomiting-retching scores for peppermint compared to controls (no aromatherapy) on days 1, 2, 3, and 4 for 4 of the 5 chemotherapy regimens (ie, folfirinox, paclitaxel-trastuzumab, carboplatin AUC < 4-paclitaxel, cyclophosphamide-adriamycin) but not for the cisplatin regimen (P<0.001 to P=0.047).(Efe Erturk 2021)

The American Society of Enhanced Recovery and Society for Ambulatory Anesthesia's 2020 updated guideline for the management of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) now recommends multimodal prophylaxis in adults with at least 1 risk factor. As a nonpharmacologic option, results from an updated meta-analysis for treatment of PONV determined that peppermint aromatherapy was no more effective than placebo in reducing nausea at 5 minutes (level A1). However, results from a small pilot study suggested that peppermint chewing gum was not inferior to ondansetron for PONV treatment in women who underwent laparoscopic or breast surgery under general anesthesia (level A3). Additionally, the guidelines highlight that the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery society recommendations include the liberal use of chewing gum as part of their enhanced recovery pathway to minimize PONV and postoperative ileus in patients who have undergone radical cystectomy for bladder cancer.(Darvall 2017, Gan 2020)

Biliary disorders

Animal and in vitro data

Choleretic action of peppermint oil has been described,(Grigoleit 2005, Zong 2011) with animal and in vitro studies demonstrating a significant increase in bile flow as well as changes in components of bile (eg, total cholesterol, bile acid, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin) after administration of peppermint oil. Gene expression related to bile acid synthesis was significantly upregulated in a time-dependent manner.(Zong 2011)

Dyspepsia

Clinical data

Gastric emptying was accelerated by peppermint oil when added to a test meal.(Inamori 2007) However, in a small randomized crossover study enrolling 10 healthy H. pylori-negative males, addition of peppermint oil to a histamine H2 receptor antagonist (lafutidine) did not increase average intragastric pH or provide a longer duration of pH levels greater than 2, 3, 3.5, 4, 5, 6, and 7 compared to laftudine alone.(Iida 2011)

Functional abdominal pain

Clinical data

In 30 children 7 to 12 years of age with functional abdominal pain in the absence of a significant chronic medical condition, the pharmacokinetics of 3 doses of peppermint oil (180, 360, and 540 mg/day) and the relationship between systemic exposure and GI motility were investigated. Overall, mean pain severity was lower during the treatment period compared to baseline (P=0.004) and no adverse events were reported. No significant difference was observed in motility or gastric transit time after treatment compared to baseline. However, stomach contraction frequency increased significantly compared to baseline in the 540 mg group, whereas whole gut contraction was observed to decrease significantly in the 360 mg group (P=0.031 for each). Dose-pharmacodynamic relationships included a direct correlation between stomach as well as duodenal contraction frequency and dose (P=0.02 and 0.39, respectively), and between ileal mean contraction amplitude and dose (P=0.028). No correlation was found for dose and transit time.(Shulman 2022)

Irritable bowel syndrome

Clinical data

Administration of peppermint oil should be considered only after definite diagnosis of IBS with no associated organic lesions, and after other diagnoses have been eliminated.(Cash 2016) Reviews of peppermint oil and its role in IBS confirm its effectiveness compared with placebo and as standard treatment in patients with nonserious constipation or diarrhea to reduce global symptoms, pain, and bloating. Benefit may favor lower GI (eg, abdominal pain, bloating, stool consistency, stool frequency, flatulence) over upper GI symptoms (eg, belching, heartburn, nausea).(Cappello 2007, Ford 2008, Grigoleit 2005, Hadley 2005, Harris 2006, Huertas-Ceballos 2008, Jailwala 2000, Jones 2006, Kline 2001, Liu 1997, Merat 2010, Pittler 1998, van Zanten 2009) In contrast, no difference was reported between peppermint oil and placebo in IBS severity scores or secondary outcomes in a double-blind, randomized study that enrolled 133 patients with moderate to severe IBS symptoms. The majority of patients had IBS with diarrhea (mean, 39%) or mixed diarrhea/constipation (mean, 37%). Peppermint oil was administered as enteric-coated 180-mg capsules taken 30 minutes before meals 3 times daily for 6 weeks. Twice as many patients in the treatment group withdrew from the study (34.8%) compared to placebo (18.4%) with 17.4% vs 9.2% due to adverse events, respectively. The incidence of reflux/heartburn and belching were significantly higher for peppermint oil than placebo (26.1% vs 11.5% and 10.9% vs 2.3%, respectively).(Nee 2021)

A review of clinical trials investigating dosages of up to 1,200 mg/day of enteric-coated peppermint oil (capsules containing 180 to 200 mg of peppermint oil and administered as 1 to 2 capsules 3 times daily) over 2 to 4 weeks suggested peppermint oil may be a drug of first choice in patients with nonserious constipation and diarrhea associated with IBS to alleviate general symptoms and improve quality of life.(Grigoleit 2005) A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis of 9 studies (N=726) evaluating peppermint oil for treatment of IBS symptoms support these observations.(Khanna 2014) In the Irritable Bowel Syndrome Reduction Evaluation and Safety Trial (IBSREST), which enrolled 72 patients with mixed- or diarrhea-type IBS, a novel capsule formulation incorporating triple-coated microspheres of peppermint oil (180 mg 3 times daily for 4 weeks) designed to provide sustained release in the small intestine was effective in providing rapid relief of IBS symptoms; at 24 hours and 4 weeks, Total IBS Symptom Score was significantly improved compared to placebo, and treatment was well tolerated.(Cash 2016) Similarly, abdominal pain (6 studies, N=556) and global IBS symptom improvement (7 studies, N=507) were found to be significantly improved with oral peppermint oil compared to placebo in another systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized, controlled trials. No heterogeneity was found among studies for either result.(Alammar 2019)

An American College of Gastroenterology monograph on the management of IBS and chronic idiopathic constipation (2014) states that peppermint oil is superior to placebo for improving IBS constipation symptoms. Limited data suggest it may attenuate visceral hypersensitivity and modulation of pain sensation (weak recommendation; moderate-quality evidence).(Ford 2014) The American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) clinical guideline for the management of irritable bowel syndrome (2021) suggests using peppermint/peppermint oil to provide relief of global IBS symptoms (conditional; low).(Lacy 2021) Likewise, the American Gastroenterology Association's updated clinical practice guidelines on the pharmacological management of IBS with diarrhea (2022) and with constipation (2022) continue to suggest using antispasmodics, including peppermint oil, in patients with IBS (conditional, low).(Chang 2022, Lembo 2022) The British Society of Gastroenterology's updated guidelines on the management of irritable bowel syndrome (2021) make a weak recommendation on the use of peppermint oil as an effective treatment for global symptoms and abdominal pain in IBS. Gastroesophageal reflux has been noted as a common side effect (very low).(Vasant 2021)

Smooth muscle spasm

Smooth muscle antispasmodic effects of peppermint appear to result from menthol inhibition of contractile response to acetylcholine, histamine, 5-HTP, and substance P via reduced calcium influx.(Asao 2001, Grigoleit 2005, Hills 1991, Khalaf 2019)

Clinical data

The oil or its l-menthol extract has been useful for colonic(Asao 2001, Grigoleit 2005, Somerville 1984, Sparks 1995) and esophageal spasm,(Hiki 2003, Massey 2001, Pimentel 2001) as well as to suppress peristalsis during colonoscopy(Inoue 2014, Shavaki 2012, Shah 2019) and other endoscopic procedures.(Asao 2001, Fujishiro 2014, Hiki 2012, Hiki 2003, Imagawa 2012, Mizuno 2006, Papathanasopoulos 2013, Yamamoto 2006)

In a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial (N=66), times required for cecal intubation and total procedure were significantly reduced (P<0.001 each) with administration of enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (ie, Colpermin; 187 mg of peppermint oil per capsule) as premedication for colonoscopy. Additionally, patient scores for colonic spasm, pain, and willingness to repeat the procedure (90% vs 19%, respectively), as well as endoscopist satisfaction scores were significantly better for the peppermint oil group compared to placebo (P<0.001 for each). Adverse effects reported in the treatment group (and not in the placebo group) included heartburn (n=1) and vomiting (n=1), with the latter leading to study discontinuation.(Shavaki 2012) Compared to placebo, l-menthol intracolonic spray led to significantly higher detection rates of adenomas (60.2% vs 42.6%; P=0.008), lower peristalsis scores (P<0.0001), and a higher proportion of patients with no peristalsis (71% vs 30.9%; P<0.0001).(Inoue 2014) Similar results were observed in a study of patients undergoing endoscopic gastric treatment; no or mild peristalsis was reported in 85.4% of patients receiving l-menthol compared to 39% of those receiving placebo (P<0.001), and higher sustained response rates were observed in the l-menthol group compared to placebo (P<0.001).(Fujishiro 2014) Sustained reduction in gastric phasic contractility resulting in a reduction in fasting intragastric pressure has also been documented following acute administration of peppermint oil.(Papathanasopoulos 2013) In another study of patients undergoing gastric endoscopy, sustained reduction in peristalsis with intragastric administration of l-menthol was dose dependent and significantly different than placebo. An adverse drug reaction occurring more often with menthol than placebo was mild headache; no abnormality in gastric mucosa was found at the antrum spray site in any subjects.(Hiki 2012) Mixed outcomes were reported with topical instillation of peppermint oil solution sprayed directly on the bowel wall at the time of a screening colonoscopy in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (N=48). Although average time to reach the cecum and the degree of colonic spasticity were significantly less in the peppermint oil group (P=0.04 and P=0.05, respectively), no significant differences were observed in total colonoscopy time, withdrawal time, extent of bowel wall visualization, severity of peristalsis, or perception of pain.(Shah 2019)

In a non-controlled retrospective study, data were assessed from patients with esophageal motility disorders who were treated with oral peppermint oil (11% via peppermint Altoids) for non-obstructive dysphagia (NOD) and/or non-cardiac chest pain (NCCP). Response rates were highest among those presenting with both NOD and NCCP (73%) and lowest among those with dysphagia only (53%). Significant response rates were observed in those presenting with esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction (100%) or distal esophageal spasm (83%) compared to other manometric diagnoses (P<0.01 for each), with parallel results seen in symptom relief scores (P=0.02 and P=0.002, respectively). The treatment was well tolerated.(Khalaf 2019)

Hepatoprotectant effects

Animal data

Peppermint oil protected against experimental hepatic injury by arsenic and other chemicals in mice and rats,(Bellassoued 2018, Ogaly 2018, Sharma 2007) with efficacy comparable to that of silymarin, a well-known antioxidant. Improvements were seen in liver enzymes, lipid parameters, lipid peroxidation biomarkers, and antioxidant enzymes; attenuation of histopathological hepatic lesions and fibrosis was also observed.(Bellassoued 2018, Ogaly 2018) Beneficial effects were dose dependent and were observed with a 40 mg/kg dose of M. piperita leaf essential oil but not with a 5 mg/kg dose.(Bellassoued 2018)

Nipple cracks

Clinical data

Topical peppermint water has been studied for prevention of nipple cracks in 196 primiparous breastfeeding women, with statistically significant favorable results observed in the peppermint water group.(Sayyah Melli 2007)

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Clinical data

A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of nutritional supplements and herbal medicines for polycystic ovary syndrome identified 1 randomized controlled trial evaluating the effects of M. spicata (N=41). Although no primary outcome data were reported, a significant effect was reported for peppermint compared to chamomile tea for reduction in total testosterone (P=0.03).(Arentz 2017)

Respiratory effects

Clinical data

Menthol is available in a variety of nonprescription products (eg, chest rubs, inhalants, lozenges, syrups) for the treatment of colds and related congestion and cough. A decrease in cough was demonstrated in children when menthol inhalation was compared with placebo.(Houghton 1998) The mechanism by which menthol may act as an antitussive is speculative(Eccles 1994); however, anion transporters (eg, TPRV1, TRPA1, ASICs) in airway epithelial cells have been implicated.(Morise 2010, Wise 2012) In a study of 12 healthy volunteers, a significant increase in cough threshold was observed via chemosensory stimulation using a sucrose mouth rinse followed by inhalation of menthol vapor. However, the effects demonstrated by l-menthol were lower than those following mouth rinse with the sucrose solution (25% vs 45%, respectively). High individual variability in sensitivity to menthol and sucrose pretreatment was observed.(Wise 2012) Antitussive effects were also demonstrated in adult patients with sensory hyper-reactivity and chronic cough (N=29) following pretreatment with a 1% (P<0.02) and 0.5% (P<0.05) nebulized menthol solution compared to placebo.(Millqvist 2013)

Menthol inhalation can cause a subjective nasal decongestant effect without any objective decongestant action. In lozenges, the main action of menthol appears to be a subjective sensation of improved nasal airflow.(Eccles 1994)

No effect on forced expiratory volume was shown in patients with chronic mild asthma using nebulized menthol versus placebo. However, the menthol group used fewer bronchodilators and had fewer wheezing episodes.(Tamaoki 1995) Similarly, no significant differences were observed in upper airway resistance in healthy volunteers receiving inhaled menthol,(Pereira 2013) or in spirometry outcomes in patients with chronic cough and sensory hyper-reactivity receiving menthol pretreatment compared to placebo or healthy controls.(Millqvist 2013)

Smoking cessation/nicotine metabolism

Clinical data

In an open-label crossover study of adult smokers of nonmentholated cigarettes, the metabolic conversion of nicotine to cotinine was significantly reduced during what was referred to as a "mint drink period," during which peppermint tea was administered, compared to the "off-menthol" period, during which menthol-containing products and mint drinks were avoided (P<0.0001).(Ghazi 2011) However, other studies evaluating the effects of menthol on biomarkers of exposure in cigarette smokers show equivocal results regarding cotinine and nicotine levels.(Strasser 2013) Both nicotine and menthol activate the same somatosensory receptor (TRPA1) in a reversible manner, with desensitization of perceived nicotine irritation demonstrated after pretreatment with menthol. However, in a small crossover trial of 20 nonmenthol smokers, the perception of stinging pain from nicotine was decreased significantly more in a no-menthol condition compared with a menthol condition (P=0.0018).(Renner 2012) With the passing of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gained authority to regulate tobacco products, including the power to ban associated flavors like clove but not menthol. To provide follow-up recommendations to the FDA, research has investigated the effect that a menthol ban might have on smokers. Findings have been mixed.(Rojewski 2014, Smith 2014, Strasser 2013)

In one open-label, randomized study of 60 adult smokers of menthol cigarettes, the effect of removing menthol from cigarettes was explored. Of the 32 smokers who completed the study, a worse taste, aftertaste, and less pleasant smoke smell were reported in the experimental group when transitioning from the menthol to the nonmenthol smoking period compared to the control group, consisting of smokers who continued to smoke their own brand cigarette across all periods. Additionally, smoking behavior outcomes such as puff volume and duration, but not number of puffs, increased from the menthol to the nonmenthol period. However, no change was observed in the number of cigarettes smoked per day between these 2 periods. No differences were observed in carbon monoxide, nicotine, or cotinine levels, or in the oxidative stress biomarker 8-oxo-dGuo between the menthol and nonmenthol sessions.(Strasser 2013) In a study assessing the relationship between menthol cigarette use and measures of cessation success, menthol cigarette smoking was associated with a lower abstinence rate compared to nonmenthol smoking after controlling for cessation treatment type. In a longitudinal secondary analysis of data from the Wisconsin Smokers Health Study (N=1,504 smokers), an estimated probability of abstinence success was reported as 37% for menthol smokers versus 45% for nonmenthol smokers. The magnitude of this effect decreased, as did the difference between abstinence probabilities when adjusted for the covariates of education, living with a smoker, proportion of friends smoking, and level of nicotine dependence. Statistical significance between menthol and nonmenthol cigarette smoking on cessation rates was lost when study site was included as an additional covariate to those previously listed. When race and gender covariates were combined, a significantly lower probability in abstinence was evident in females versus males who smoked menthol cigarettes, particularly black females compared with white females (17% vs 35%, respectively; P<0.0001).(Smith 2014) Similarly, a secondary analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial of low-dose naltrexone as an adjunct to nicotine replacement therapy reported significantly lower abstinence rates in menthol versus nonmenthol smokers at both 14 and 26 weeks (P=0.04 each). Weight gain was noted to be significantly higher in menthol smokers who quit than nonmenthol smokers who quit (P=0.03).(Rojewski 2014)

Other

Of 31 complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) remedies, peppermint oil was ranked in the bottom 10 and was the least recommended herbal remedy for dental issues (28%) made by German dentists and maxillofacial surgeons according to a prospective, cross-sectional survey (N=250). As one might expect, perceived effectiveness was rated higher among CAM proponents than opponents.(Baatsch 2017)

Dosing

Various dosages of peppermint oil in enteric-coated capsules have been evaluated for use in GI conditions and procedures.Cash 2016, Grigoleit 2005, Shavakhi 2012, Somerville 1984

Dosages of up to 1,200 mg/day of enteric-coated peppermint oil (capsules containing 180 to 200 mg of peppermint oil and administered as 1 to 2 capsules 3 times daily) over 2 to 4 weeks have been used in the treatment of nonserious constipation and diarrhea associated with IBS.Grigoleit 2005

In one study, a novel capsule formulation incorporating triple-coated microspheres of peppermint oil (180 mg 3 times daily for 4 weeks) was used for relief of IBS symptoms.Cash 2016

Enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (Colpermin; 187 mg of peppermint oil per capsule) have also been used as antispasmodic premedication 4 hours prior to colonoscopy.Shavakhi 2012

Because of peppermint oil's ability to relax GI smooth muscle, patients with hiatus hernia may experience worsening symptoms while ingesting peppermint-containing preparations.Hills 1991

Enteric-coated capsules should be swallowed whole and not crushed, broken, or chewed because peppermint oil can irritate the mouth, esophagus, and stomach. Capsules should be taken 30 to 60 minutes before meals on an empty stomach.

Pregnancy / Lactation

Adverse reactions, particularly with higher doses, have been documented with use of peppermint. Use in pregnancy should be avoided because of emmenagogue effects.Ernst 2002 Peppermint water applied topically has been studied for prevention of nipple cracks in breastfeeding women.Sayyah Melli 2007 Peppermint is reported to be one of the most commonly used herbal medicines by women in Asian countries and, in low doses, is considered safe during pregnancy, with no harmful effects observed to mother or fetus. However, consumption of high doses can trigger menstruation and abortion.Ahmed 2017

Interactions

In a small open-label study, peppermint tea (150 mL consumed 3 times daily for 7 days) significantly reduced the metabolism of nicotine to cotinine in adult smokers of nonmentholated cigarettes (P<0.0001). It is unknown whether peppermint inhibited the CYP2A6 or the aldehyde oxidase step of nicotine metabolism.(Ghazi 2011)

Aripiprazole: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of aripiprazole. Monitor therapy.(Abilify February 2011, Abilify Maintena February 2013, Aung 2010, Azuma 2012, Kubo 2005)

Caffeine: Absorption of a single dose of caffeine 200 mg was delayed by menthol 100 mg in healthy volunteers.(Gelal 2003)

Cyclosporine: Decreased cyclosporine levels were reported in a patient consuming herbal tea containing peppermint and 8 other herbs.(Nowack 2005)

Dofetilide: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of dofetilide. Monitor therapy.(Johnson 2001, Tikosyn February 2011, Walker 1996)

Felodipine: Peppermint oil may influence metabolism of felodipine via inhibition of CYP3A4, elevating felodipine plasma concentrations and increasing the pharmacologic effects and adverse reactions. Peppermint oil 600 mg in water increased the area under the curve (AUC) of felodipine 40%.(Dresser 2002) However, a study of the effect of menthol showed no effect on felodipine pharmacokinetics in healthy adults.(Gelal 2005) A class effect on other calcium channel blocking agents has been previously suggested.(Beesley 1996)

Flibanserin: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of flibanserin. Monitor therapy.(Addyi August 2015)

Lomitapide: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of lomitapide. Consider therapy modification.(Juxtapid March 2016, Patel 2016)

Nicotine: Peppermint may decrease the metabolism of nicotine. No action needed.(Ghazi 2011)

Nimodipine: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of nimodipine. Monitor therapy.(Nimodipine April 2015)

Pimozide: CYP3A4 inhibitors (weak) may increase the serum concentration of pimozide. Avoid combination.(Desta 1998, Desta 1999, Flockhart 1996, Orap August 2011)

Simvastatin: Peppermint oil may influence metabolism of simvastatin via inhibition of CYP3A4, elevating simvastatin plasma concentrations and increasing pharmacologic and adverse reactions. Peppermint oil 600 mg in water increased the AUC of simvastatin by 30% in healthy volunteers.(Dresser 2002)

Adverse Reactions

Menthol, the major component of peppermint oil, may cause allergic reactions (eg, contact dermatitis, flushing, headache).Herro 2010, Kawane 1996, Leung 1980, Posadzki 2012, Wilkinson 1994 Delayed patch-test reaction to menthol and peppermint oil may occur 6 to 14 days after application.Fleming 1998 Symptoms of contact sensitivity and ulceration from oral menthol/peppermint-containing products improved with discontinuation and avoidance of these products.Morton 1995 In a crossover study of migraine patients, cutaneous burning sensation (8.3% of migraine attacks), lacrimation (5% of attacks), and aggravation of headache (1.6% of attacks) were most common with menthol; 2 patients in the menthol group discontinued the study due to severe burning sensation and aggravation of headache.Borhani Haghighi 2010

Burns and skin necrosis following topical application of peppermint oil have been reported.Posadzki 2012 Following ingestion of 40 drops of peppermint oil, a patient with no known allergies reported mucosal burns and edema of the tongue and oral cavity.Tamir 2005 Excessive consumption of mint-flavored sweets caused stomatitis with oral papillary hypertrophy.Rogers 1995 Vulval allergic contact dermatitis was documented in a patient who consumed large amounts of peppermint tea.Vermaat 2008 A peppermint foot spray was linked to dermatitis in another patient,Kalavala 2007 and several cases of dermatitis of the lips and mouth were traced to peppermint flavored/menthol-containing lip balm, toothpaste, and throat spray.Bourgeois 2016, Tran 2010 Nonetheless, such peppermint allergies appear to be rare, with prospective patch testing finding no allergic or irritant reactions to either menthol or peppermint oil in 400 subjects.Kanerva 2001 Loss of libido in men following consumption of peppermint tea has been reported.Akdogan 2004

Toxicology

Like other mints from which menthol is derived as a plant extract, peppermint has GRAS status when consumed as a seasoning or flavoring.McKay 2006, Nair 2001 Two comprehensive reports on peppermint safety have been published,Nair 2001, SCF 2002 with pulegone and menthofuran being the constituents of toxicologic concern. Radiolabeled pulegone binds to rat kidney alpha-2u-globulin, which may be a target of toxicity.Ferguson 2007

Rats fed peppermint oil in dosages of up to 100 mg/kg/day for 28 days developed dose-related brain lesions. A similar 90-day study demonstrated identical pathology, with no additional aggravation of the cyst-like spaces in the cerebellum, similar in nature to the neuropathy induced by hexachlorophene and attributed to the pulegone component of peppermint oil.Nair 2001, Olsen 1984 However, oil doses of this magnitude would be considered an overdosage with the oil. Standards for peppermint oil limit pulegone concentration to 1% of the oil.Nair 2001

A case of delirium resulting from intoxication by oral ingestion of topical mentholatum required hospitalization in a woman with chronic alcoholism.Huntimer 2000 A man with chronic alcoholism also experienced delirium after possible oral ingestion of a topical menthol/alcohol-containing analgesic.Weiss 2001 Pulmonary edema and acute lung injury occurred in a patient following intravenous injection of peppermint oil.Behrends 2005

Peppermint oil should not be administered to patients with heartburn or active gastric ulcers because symptoms may be exacerbated. The oil can decrease esophageal sphincter pressure and contribute to gastroesophageal reflux.Hills 1991 Peppermint oil should not be applied to the face, especially under the nose of a child or infant.Eccles 1994 The application of menthol-containing ointment to the nostrils of an infant for the treatment of cold symptoms has caused instant collapse.Leung 1980 Enteric-coated preparations have not been studied in children younger than 8 years and are not recommended for use in very young children.Kline 2001 No association between use of peppermint in the last 2 trimesters of pregnancy and premature birth has been identified, but use in pregnancy should be avoided.Moussally 2010

Index Terms

References

Disclaimer

This information relates to an herbal, vitamin, mineral or other dietary supplement. This product has not been reviewed by the FDA to determine whether it is safe or effective and is not subject to the quality standards and safety information collection standards that are applicable to most prescription drugs. This information should not be used to decide whether or not to take this product. This information does not endorse this product as safe, effective, or approved for treating any patient or health condition. This is only a brief summary of general information about this product. It does NOT include all information about the possible uses, directions, warnings, precautions, interactions, adverse effects, or risks that may apply to this product. This information is not specific medical advice and does not replace information you receive from your health care provider. You should talk with your health care provider for complete information about the risks and benefits of using this product.

This product may adversely interact with certain health and medical conditions, other prescription and over-the-counter drugs, foods, or other dietary supplements. This product may be unsafe when used before surgery or other medical procedures. It is important to fully inform your doctor about the herbal, vitamins, mineral or any other supplements you are taking before any kind of surgery or medical procedure. With the exception of certain products that are generally recognized as safe in normal quantities, including use of folic acid and prenatal vitamins during pregnancy, this product has not been sufficiently studied to determine whether it is safe to use during pregnancy or nursing or by persons younger than 2 years of age.

Abdellatief SA, Beheiry RR, El-Mandrawy SAM. Peppermint essential oil alleviates hyperglycemia caused by streptozotocin- nicotinamide-induced type 2 diabetes in rats. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;95:990-999.28922713
Abilify (aripiprazole) [prescribing information]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb; February 2011.
Abilify Maintena (aripiprazole) [prescribing information]. Rockville, MD: Otsuka America Pharmaceutical Inc; February 2013.
Addyi (flibanserin) [prescribing information]. Raleigh, NC: Sprout Pharmaceuticals Inc; August 2015.
Ahmed M, Hwang JH, Choi S, Han D. Safety classification of herbal medicines used among pregnant women in Asian countries: a systematic review. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17(1):489.29137614
Akbari F, Rezaei M, Khatony A. Effect Of Peppermint Essence On The Pain And Anxiety Caused By Intravenous Catheterization In Cardiac Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Pain Res. 2019;12:2933-2939.31695482
Akdogan M, Ozguner M, Kocak A, Oncu M, Cicek E. Effects of peppermint teas on plasma testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone levels and testicular tissue in rats. Urology. 2004;64(2):394-398.15302514
Alammar N, Wang L, Saberi B, et al. The impact of peppermint oil on the irritable bowel syndrome: a meta-analysis of the pooled clinical data. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19(1):21.30654773
Anderson LA, Gross JB. Aromatherapy with peppermint, isopropyl alcohol, or placebo is equally effective in relieving postoperative nausea. J Perianesth Nurs. 2004;19(1):29-35.14770380
Arentz S, Smith CA, Abbott J, Bensoussan A. Nutritional supplements and herbal medicines for women with polycystic ovary syndrome; a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17(1):500.29178904
Asao T, Mochiki E, Suzuki H, et al. An easy method for the intraluminal administration of peppermint oil before colonoscopy and its effectiveness in reducing colonic spasm. Gastrointest Endosc. 2001;53(2):172-177.11174287
Aung GL, O'Brien JG, Tien PG, Kawamoto LS. Increased aripiprazole concentrations in an HIV-positive male concurrently taking duloxetine, darunavir, and ritonavir. Ann Pharmacother. 2010;44(11):1850-1854.20978219
Ayaz M, Sadiq A, Junaid M, Ullah F, Subhan F, Ahmed J. Neuroprotective and anti-aging potentials of essential oils from aromatic and medicinal plants. Front Aging Neurosci. 2017;9:168.28611658
Azuma J, Hasunuma T, Kubo M, et al. The relationship between clinical pharmacokinetics of aripiprazole and CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism: effects of CYP enzyme inhibition by coadministration of paroxetine or fluvoxamine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;68(1):29-37.21739267
Baatsch B, Zimmer S, Recchia DR, Bussing A. Complementary and alternative therapies in dentistry and characteristics of dentists who recommend them. Complement Ther Med. 2017;35:64-69.29154070
Barbalho SM, Damasceno DC, Spada AP, et al. Metabolic profile of offspring from diabetic Wistar rats treated with Mentha piperita (peppermint). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;2011:430237.21647314
Beesley A, Hardcastle J, Hardcastle PT, Taylor CJ. Influence of peppermint oil on absorptive and secretory processes in rat small intestine. Gut. 1996;39(2):214-219.8991859
Behrends M, Beiderlinden M, Peters J. Acute lung injury after peppermint oil injection. Anesth Analg. 2005;101(4):1160-1162.16192538
Behrendt HJ, Germann T, Gillen C, Hatt H, Jostock R. Characterization of the mouse cold-menthol receptor TRPM8 and vanilloid receptor type-1 VR1 using a fluorometric imaging plate reader (FLIPR) assay. Br J Pharmacol. 2004;141(4):737-745.14757700
Bellassoued K, Ben Hsouna A, Athmouni K, et al. Protective effects of Mentha piperita L. leaf essential oil against CCl4 induced hepatic oxidative damage and renal failure in rats. Lipids Health Dis. 2018;17(1):9.29316974
Borhani Haghighi A, Motazedian S, Rezaii R, et al. Cutaneous application of menthol 10% solution as an abortive treatment of migraine without aura: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossed-over study. Int J Clin Pract. 2010;64(4):451-456.20456191
Bourgeois P, Goossens A. Allergic contact cheilitis caused by menthol in toothpaste and throat medication: a case report. Contact Dermatitis. 2016;75(2):113-115.27385520
Briggs C. Peppermint: Medicinal herb and flavouring agent. CPJ. 1993;126:89-92.
Cash BD, Epstein MS, Shah SM. A novel delivery system of peppermint oil is an effective therapy for irritable bowel syndrome symptoms. Dig Dis Sci. 2016;61(2):560-571.26319955
Cappello G, Spezzaferro M, Grossi L, Manzoli L, Marzio L. Peppermint oil (Mintoil) in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial. Dig Liver Dis. 2007;39(6):530-536.17420159
Chang L, Sultan S, Lembo A, Verne GN, Smalley W, Heidelbaugh JJ. AGA clinical practice guideline on the pharmacological management of irritable bowel syndrome with constipation. Gastroenterology. 2022;163(1):118-136. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2022.04.01635738724
Colzato LS, Sellaro R, Rossi Paccani C, Hommel B. Attentional control in the attentional blink is modulated by odor. Atten Percept Psychophys. 2014;76(6):1510-1515.25070746
Darvall JN, Handscombe M, Leslie K. Chewing gum for the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Br J Anaesth. 2017;118(1):83-89. doi:10.1093/bja/aew37528039245
Dennehy C, Tsourounis C, Bui L, King TL. The use of herbs by California midwives. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2010;39(6):684-693.21044150
Desta Z, Kerbusch T, Soukhova N, Richard E, Ko JW, Flockhart DA. Identification and characterization of human cytochrome P450 isoforms interacting with pimozide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1998;285(2):428-437.9580580
Desta Z, Kerbusch T, Flockhart DA. Effect of clarithromycin on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pimozide in healthy, poor, and extensive metabolizers of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6). Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1999;65(1):10-20.9951426
Dresser GK, Wacher V, Wong S, Wong HT, Bailey DG. Evaluation of peppermint oil and ascorbyl palmitate as inhibitors of cytochrome P4503A4 activity in vitro and in vivo. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;72(3):247-255.12235445
Ebrahimie M, Bahmani M, Shirzad H, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Saki K. A review study on the effect of Iranian herbal medicines on opioid withdrawal syndrome. J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med. 2015;20(4):302-309.25818661
Eccles R. Menthol and related cooling compounds. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1994;46(8):618-630.7529306
Efe Ertürk N, Taşcı S. The effects of peppermint oil on nausea, vomiting and retching in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy: An open label quasi-randomized controlled pilot study. Complement Ther Med. 2021;56:102587. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2020.10258733197662
Ernst E. Herbal medicinal products during pregnancy: are they safe? BJOG. 2002;109(3):227-235.
Ferguson LJ, Lebetkin EH, Lih FB, et al. 14C-labeled pulegone and metabolites binding to alpha2u-globulin in kidneys of male F-344 rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2007;70(17):1416-1423.17687727
Fleming CJ, Forsyth A. D5 patch test reactions to menthol and peppermint. Contact Dermatitis. 1998;38(6):337.9687034
Flockhart DA, Richard E, Woosely RL, et al. A metabolic interaction between clarithromycin and pimozide may result in cardiac toxicity. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59:189.
Ford AC, Moayyedi P, Lacy BE, et al; Task Force on the Management of Functional Bowel Disorders. American College of Gastroenterology monograph on the management of irritable bowel syndrome and chronic idiopathic constipation. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109(suppl 1):S2-S26.25091148
Ford AC, Talley NJ, Spiegel BM, et al. Effect of fibre, antispasmodics, and peppermint oil in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis [published correction appears in BMJ. 2009;388:b1881]. BMJ. 2008;337:a2313.19008265
Forrester LT, Maayan N, Orrell M, Spector AE, Buchan LD, Soares-Weiser K. Aromatherapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2:CD003150.24569873
Fujishiro M, Kaminishi M, Hiki N, et al. Efficacy of spraying l-menthol solution during endoscopic treatment of early gastric cancer: a phase III, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Gastroenterol. 2014;49(3):446-454.23800946
Gan TJ, Belani KG, Bergese S, et al. Fourth consensus guidelines for the management of postoperative nausea and vomiting [published correction appears in Anesth Analg. 2020;131(5):e241]. Anesth Analg. 2020;131(2):411-448. doi:10.1213/ANE.000000000000483332467512
Gelal A, Balkan D, Ozzeybek D, et al. Effect of menthol on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of felodipine in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;60(11):785-790.15592925
Gelal A, Guven H, Balkan D, Artok L, Benowitz NL. Influence of menthol on caffeine disposition and pharmacodynamics in healthy female volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;59(5-6):417-422.12915954
Geuenich S, Goffinet C, Venzke S, et al. Aqueous extracts from peppermint, sage and lemon balm leaves display potent anti-HIV-1 activity by increasing the virion density. Retrovirology. 2008;5:27.18355409
Ghazi AM, Salhab AS, Arafat TA, Irshaid YM. Effect of mint drink on metabolism of nicotine as measured by nicotine to cotinine ratio in urine of Jordanian smoking volunteers. Nicotine Tob Res. 2011;13(8):661-667.21454915
Göbel H, Schmidt G, Soyka D. Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia. 1994;14(3):228-234.7954745
Goerg KJ, Spilker T. Effect of peppermint oil and caraway oil on gastrointestinal motility in healthy volunteers: a pharmacodynamic study using simultaneous determination of gastric and gall-bladder emptying and orocaecal transit time. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17(3):445-451.12562459
Golembiewski J, Chernin E, Chopra T. Prevention and treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2005;62(12):1247-1260.15947124
Grigoleit HG, Grigoleit P. Gastrointestinal clinical pharmacology of peppermint oil. Phytomedicine. 2005;12(8):607-611.16121522
Grigoleit HG, Grigoleit P. Peppermint oil in irritable bowel syndrome. Phytomedicine. 2005;12(8):601-606.16121521
Grigoleit HG, Grigoleit P. Pharmacology and preclinical pharmacokinetics of peppermint oil. Phytomedicine. 2005;12(8):612-616.16121523
Hadley SK, Gaarder SM. Treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72(12):2501-2506.16370407
Harris LA, Chang L. Irritable bowel syndrome: new and emerging therapies. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2006;22(2):128-135.16462168
Hatem S, Attal N, Willer JC, Bouhassira D. Psychophysical study of the effects of topical application of menthol in healthy volunteers. Pain. 2006;122(1-2):190-196.16527405
Heimes K, Hauk F, Verspohl EJ. Mode of action of peppermint oil and (-)-menthol with respect to 5-HT3 receptor subtypes: binding studies, cation uptake by receptor channels and contraction of isolated rat ileum. Phytother Res. 2011;25(5):702-708.21077259
Herro E, Jacob SE. Mentha piperita (peppermint). Dermatitis. 2010;21(6):327-329.21144345
Heuberger E, Ilmberger J. The influence of essential oils on human vigilance. Nat Prod Commun. 2010;5(9):1441-1446.20923005
Hiki N, Kurosaka H, Tatsutomi Y, et al. Peppermint oil reduces gastric spasm during upper endoscopy: a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy controlled trial. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003;57(4):475-482.12665756
Hiki N, Kaminishi M, Yasuda K, et al. Multicenter phase II randomized study evaluating dose-response of antiperistaltic effect of L-menthol sprayed onto the gastric mucosa for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Dig Endosc. 2012;24(2):79-86.22348831
Hills JM, Aaronson PI. The mechanism of action of peppermint oil on gastrointestinal smooth muscle. An analysis using patch clamp electrophysiology and isolated tissue pharmacology in rabbit and guinea pig. Gastroenterology. 1991;101(1):55-65.1646142
Hines S, Steels E, Chang A, Gibbons K. Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting [update in Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;3:CD007598]. Cochrane Database Sys Rev. 2012;(4):CD007598.22513952
Houghton TM, Beardsmore CS. The effect of menthol on nasal airflow, perception of nasal patency, and cough receptor sensitivity in children aged 10 and 11 years. Thorax. 1998;53(suppl 4):9A.
Huertas-Ceballos A, Logan S, Bennett C, Macarthur C. Pharmacological interventions for recurrent abdominal pain (RAP) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in childhood [update in Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2:CD003017]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(1):CD003017.18254013
Huntimer CM, Bean DW. Delerium after ingestion of mentholatum. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(3):483-484.10698846
Iida H, Inamori M, Uchiyama T, et al. Early effects of oral administration of lafutidine with peppermint oil, compared with lafutidine alone, on intragastric pH values. Hepatogastroenterology. 2011;58(105):235-238.21510321
Imagawa A, Hata H, Nakatsu M, et al. Peppermint oil solution is useful as an antispasmodic drug for esophagogastroduodenoscopy, especially for elderly patients. Dig Dis Sci. 2012;57(9):2379-2384.22562537
Imai H, Osawa K, Yasuda H, Hamashima H, Arai T, Sasatsu M. Inhibition by the essential oils of peppermint and spearmint of the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Microbios. 2001;106(suppl 1):31-39.11549238
Inamori M, Akiyama T, Akimoto K, et al. Early effects of peppermint oil on gastric emptying: a crossover study using a continuous real-time 13C breath test (BreathID system). J Gastroenterol. 2007;42(7):539-542.17653649
Inoue K, Dohi O, Gen Y, et al. L-menthol improves adenoma detection rate during colonoscopy: a randomized trial. Endoscopy. 2014;46(3):196-202.24573731
Işcan G, Kirimer N, Kürkcüoğlu M, Başer KH, Demirci F. Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita essential oils. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(14):3943-3946.12083863
Jailwala J, Imperiale TF, Kroenke K. Pharmacologic treatment of the irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133(2):136-147.10896640
Johnson BF, Cheng SL and Venitz J. Transient kinetic and dynamic interactions between verapamil and dofetilide, a class III antiarrhythmic. J Clin Pharmacol, 2001;41(11):1248-1256.11697758
Jones MP, Wessinger S. Small intestinal motility. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2006;22(2):111-116.16462165
Juxtapid (lomitapide) [prescribing information]. Cambridge, MA: Aegerion Pharmaceuticals Inc; March 2016.
Kalavala M, Hughes TM, Goodwin RG, Anstey AV, Stone NM. Allergic contact dermatitis to peppermint foot spray. Contact Dermatitis. 2007;57(1):57-58.17577363
Kanerva L, Rantanen T, Aalto-Korte K, et al. A multicenter study of patch test reactions with dental screening series. Am J Contact Dermat. 2001;12(2):83-87.11381343
Kawane H. Menthol and aspirin-induced asthma. Respir Med. 1996;90(4):247.8736660
Khalaf MHG, Chowdhary S, Elmunzer BJ, Elias PS, Castell D. Impact of peppermint therapy on dysphagia and non-cardiac chest pain: A pilot study. Dig Dis Sci. 2019;64(8):2214-2218.30771044
Khanna R, MacDonald JK, Levesque BG. Peppermint oil for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;48(6):505-512.24100754
Kline RM, Kline JJ, Di Palma J, Barbero GJ. Enteric-coated, pH-dependent peppermint oil capsules for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome in children. J Pediatr. 2001;138(1):125-128.11148527
Koteles F, Babulka P, Szemerszky R, Domotor Z, Boros S. Inhaled peppermint, rosemary and eucalyptus essential oils do not change spirometry in healthy individual. Physiol Behav. 2018;194:319-323.29913229
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, Maresh CM, et al. A cetylated fatty acid topical cream with menthol reduces pain and improves functional performance in individuals with arthritis. J Strength Cond Res. 2005;19(2):475-480.15903393
Kubo M, Koue T, Inaba A, et al. Influence of itraconazole co-administration and CYP2D6 genotype on the pharmacokinetics of the new antipsychotic aripiprazole. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2005;20(1):55-64.15770075
Lacy BE, Pimentel M, Brenner DM, et al. ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021;116(1):17-44. doi:10.14309/ajg.000000000000103633315591
Lembo A, Sultan S, Chang L, Heidelbaugh JJ, Smalley W, Verne GN. AGA clinical practice guideline on the pharmacological management of irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea. Gastroenterology. 2022;163(1):137-151. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2022.04.01735738725
Leung AY. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics. New York, NY: Wiley Interscience; 1980.
Lis-Balchin M, Deans SG, Hart S. A study of the variability of commercial peppermint oils using antimicrobial and pharmacologic parameters. Med Sci Res. 1997;25(3):151-152.
Liu JH, Chen GH, Yeh HZ, Huang CK, Poon SK. Enteric-coated peppermint-oil capsules in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective, randomized trial. J Gastroenterol. 1997;32(6):765-768.9430014
Liu Y, Ye X, Feng X, et al. Menthol facilitates the skin analgesic effect of tetracaine gel. Int J Pharm. 2005;305(1-2):31-36.16219435
López V, Martín S, Gómez-Serranillos MP, Carretero ME, Jäger AK, Calvo MI. Neuroprotective and neurochemical properties of mint extracts. Phytother Res. 2010;24(6):869-874.19943334
Maghami M, Afazel MR, Azizi-Fini I, Maghami M. The effect of aromatherapy with peppermint essential oil on nausea and vomiting after cardiac surgery: A randomized clinical trial. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2020;40:101199.32891278
Mahieu F, Owsianik G, Verbert L, et al. TRPM8-independent menthol-induced Ca2+ release from endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(5):3325-3336.17142461
Massey BT. Diffuse esophageal spasm: a case for carminatives? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2001;33(1):8-10.11418782
McKay DL, Blumberg JB. A review of the bioactivity and potential health benefits of peppermint tea (Mentha piperita L.). Phytother Res. 2006;20(8):619-633.16767798
McKemy DD, Neuhausser WM, Julius D. Identification of a cold receptor reveals a general role for TRP channels in thermosensation. Nature. 2002;416(6876):52-58.11882888
Mentha x piperita L. USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS database (http://plants.usda.gov, 19 December 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.
Merat S, Khalili S, Mostajabi P, Ghorbani A, Ansari R, Malekzadeh R. The effect of enteric-coated, delayed-release peppermint oil on irritable bowel syndrome. Dig Dis Sci. 2010;55(5):1385-1390.19507027
Mesbahzadeh B, Akbari M, Kor NM, Zadeh JB. The effects of different levels of peppermint alcoholic extract on body-weight gain and blood biochemical parameters of adult male Wistar rats. Electron Physician. 2015;7(6):1376-1380.17142461
Millqvist E, Ternesten-Hasséus E, Bende M. Inhalation of menthol reduces capsaicin cough sensitivity and influences inspiratory flows in chronic cough. Respir Med. 2013;107(3):433-438.23266255
Mizuno S, Kato K, Ono Y, et al. Oral peppermint oil is a useful antispasmodic for double-contrast barium meal examination. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(8):1297-1301.16872313
Morise M, Ito Y, Matsuno T, et al. Heterologous regulation of anion transporters by menthol in human airway epithelial cells. Eur J Pharmacol. 2010;635(1-3):204-211.20362570
Morton CA, Garioch J, Todd P, Lamey PJ, Forsyth A. Contact sensitivity to menthol and peppermint in patients with intra-oral symptoms. Contact Dermatitis. 1995;32(5):281-284.7634781
Moss M, Hewitt S, Moss L, Wesnes K. Modulation of cognitive performance and mood by aromas of peppermint and ylang-ylang. Int J Neurosci. 2008;118(1):59-77.18041606
Moussally K, Bérard A. Exposure to herbal products during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2010;150(1):107-108.20193976
Mucciarelli M, Camusso W, Maffei M, Panicco P, Bicchi C. Volatile terpenoids of endophyte-free and infected peppermint (Mentha piperita L.): chemical partitioning of a symbiosis. Microb Ecol. 2007;54(4):685-696.17370029
Nair B. Final report on the safety assessment of Mentha piperita (peppermint) oil, Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaf extract, Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaf, and Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaf water. Int J Toxicol. 2001;20(suppl 3):61-73.11766133
Nee J, Ballou S, Kelley JM, et al. Peppermint oil treatment for irritable bowel syndrome: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021;116(11):2279-2285.34319275
Nimodipine [prescribing information]. Montvale, NJ: Ascend Laboratories LLC; April 2015.
Norrish MI, Dwyer KL. Preliminary investigation of the effect of peppermint oil on an objective measure of daytime sleepiness. Int J Psychophysiol. 2005;55(3):291-298.15708642
Nowack R, Nowak B. Herbal teas interfere with cyclosporin levels in renal transplant patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005;20(11):2554-2556.16046518
Ogaly HA, Eltablawy NA, Abd-Elsalam RM. Antifibrogenic influence of Mentha piperita L. essential oil against CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in rats. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2018;2018:4039753.29849890
Olsen P, Thorup I. Neurotoxicity in rats dosed with peppermint oil and pulegone. Arch Toxicol. 1984;(suppl 7):408.
Orap (pimozide) [prescribing information]. Sellersville, PA: Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, August 2011.
Osawa K, Saeki T, Yasuda H, Hamashima H, Sasatsu M, Arai T. The antibacterial activities of peppermint oil and green tea polyphenols, alone and in combination, against enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli. Biocontrol Sci. 1999;4(1):1-7.
Papathanasopoulos A, Rotondo A, Janssen P, et al. Effect of acute peppermint oil administration on gastric sensorimotor function and nutrient tolerance in health. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2013;25(4):e263-e271.68.23489975
Park EJ, Kim SH, Kim BJ, Kim SY, So I, Jeon JH. Menthol enhances an antiproliferative activity of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) in LNCaP cells. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2009;44(2):125-130.19308266
Patel G, King A, Dutta S, et al. Evaluation of the effects of the weak CYP3A inhibitors atorvastatin and ethinyl estradiol/norgestimate on lomitapide pharmacokinetics in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;56(1):47-55.26120010
Peier AM, Moqrich A, Hergarden AC, et al. A TRP channel that senses cold stimuli and menthol. Cell. 2002;108(5):705-715.11893340
Pereira EJ, Sim L, Driver H, Parker C, Fitzpatrick M. The effect of inhaled menthol on upper airway resistance in humans: a randomized controlled crossover study. Can Respir J. 2013;20(1):e1-4.23457678
Pimentel M, Bonorris GG, Chow EJ, Lin HC. Peppermint oil improves the manometric findings in diffuse esophageal spasm. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2001;33(1):27-31.11418786
Pittler MH, Ernst E. Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome: a critical review and metaanalysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93(7):1131-1135.9672344
Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E. Adverse effects of aromatherapy: a systematic review of case reports and case series. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2012;24(3):147-161.22936057
Renner B, Schreiber K. Olfactory and trigeminal interaction of menthol and nicotine in humans. Exp Brain Res. 2012;219(1):13-26.22434343
Rios-Estepa R, Turner GW, Lee JM, Croteau RB, Lange BM. A systems biology approach identifies the biochemical mechanisms regulating monoterpenoid essential oil composition in peppermint. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(8):2818-2823.18287058
Rogers SN, Pahor AL. A form of stomatitis induced by excessive peppermint consumption. Dent Update. 1995;22(1):36-37.7664971
Rojewski AM, Toll BA, O'Malley SS. Menthol cigarette use predicts treatment outcomes of weight-concerned smokers. Nicotine Tob Res. 2014;16(1):115-119.24113927
Roussos AP, Hirsch AR. Alliaceous migraines. Headache. 2014;54(2):378-382.23551212
Samarth RM, Panwar M, Kumar M, Kumar A. Protective effects of Mentha piperita Linn on benzo[a]pyrene-induced lung carcinogenicity and mutagenicity in Swiss albino mice [published correction appears in Mutagenesis. 2007;22(4):303]. Mutagenesis. 2006;21(1):61-66.16399846
Sandasi M, Leonard CM, Viljoen AM. The in vitro antibiofilm activity of selected culinary herbs and medicinal plants against Listeria monocytogenes. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2010;50(1):30-35.19874481
Sayyah Melli M, Rashidi MR, Delazar A, et al. Effect of peppermint water on prevention of nipple cracks in lactating primiparous women: a randomized controlled trial. Int Breastfeed J. 2007;2:7.17442122
Schempp H, Weiser D, Kelber O, Elstner EF. Radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory properties of STW 5 (Iberogast) and its components. Phytomedicine. 2006;13(suppl 5):36-44.16777393
Scientific Committee on Food. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on pulegone and menthofuran. European Commission website. https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scf_out133_en.pdf. Published July 2, 2002. Accessed December 19, 2018.
Shah I, Baffy NJ, Horsley-Silva JL, Langlais BT, Ruff KC. Peppermint oil to improve visualization in screening colonoscopy: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Gastroenterology Res. 2019;12(3):141-147.31236155
Sharma A, Sharma MK, Kumar M. Protective effect of Mentha piperita against arsenic-induced toxicity in liver of Swiss albino mice. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;100(4):249-257.17371529
Shavakhi A, Ardestani SK, Taki M, Goli M, Keshteli AH. Premedication with peppermint oil capsules in colonoscopy: a double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial study. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2012;75(3):349-353.23082707
Shepherd K, Peart DJ. Aerobic capacity is not improved following 10-day supplementation with peppermint essential oil. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2017;42(5):558-561.28177705
Shulman RJ, Chumpitazi BP, Abdel-Rahman SM, Garg U, Musaad S, Kearns GL. Randomised trial: Peppermint oil (menthol) pharmacokinetics in children and effects on gut motility in children with functional abdominal pain. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2022;88(3):1321-1333. doi:10.1111/bcp.1507634528282
Sibaev A, Yuece B, Kelber O, et al. STW 5 (Iberogast) and its individual herbal components modulate intestinal electrophysiology of mice. Phytomedicine. 2006;13(suppl 5):80-89.16713219
Smith SS, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Smoking cessation in smokers who smoke menthol and non-menthol cigarettes. Addiction. 2014;109(12):2107-2117.24938369
Soleimani M, Kashfi LS, Mirmohamadkhani M, Ghods AA. The effect of aromatherapy with peppermint essential oil on anxiety of cardiac patients in emergency department: A placebo-controlled study. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2022;46:101533. doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2022.10153335007899
Somerville KW, Richmond CR, Bell GD. Delayed release peppermint oil capsules (Colpermin) for the spastic colon syndrome: a pharmacokinetic study. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1984;18(4):638-640.6487507
Sparks MJ, O'Sullivan P, Herrington AA, Morcos SK. Does peppermint oil relieve spasm during barium enema? Br J Radiol. 1995;68(812):841-843.7551780
Strasser AA, Ashare RL, Kaufman M, Tang KZ, Mesaros AC, Blair IA. The effect of menthol on cigarette smoking behaviors, biomarkers and subjective responses. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2013;22(3):382-389.23334588
Tamaoki J, Chiyotani A, Sakai A, Takemura H, Konno K. Effect of menthol vapour on airway hyperresponsiveness in patients with mild asthma. Respir Med. 1995;89(7):503-504.7480981
Tamir S, Davidovich Z, Attal P, Eliashar R. Peppermint oil chemical burn. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;133(5):801-802.16274814
Tate S. Peppermint oil: a treatment for postoperative nausea. J Adv Nurs. 1997;26(3):543-549.9378876
Thorgrimsen L, Spector A, Wiles A, Orrell M. Aroma therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD003150.12917949
Tikosyn (dofetilide) [prescribing information]. New York, NY: Pfizer Inc; February 2011.
Tran A, Pratt M, DeKoven J. Acute allergic contact dermatitis of the lips from peppermint oil in a lip balm. Dermatitis. 2010;21(2):111-115.20233551
Umezu T. Evidence for dopamine involvement in ambulation promoted by menthone in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009;91(3):315-320.18718482
Umezu T, Sakata A, Ito H. Ambulation-promoting effect of peppermint oil and identification of its active constituents. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2001;69(3-4):383-390.11509195
van Zanten SV. Review: fibre, antispasmodics, and peppermint oil are all effective for irritable bowel syndrome. Evid Based Med. 2009;14(3):84.19483033
Vasant DH, Paine PA, Black CJ, et al. British Society of Gastroenterology guidelines on the management of irritable bowel syndrome. Gut. 2021;70(7):1214-1240. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2021-32459833903147
Vermaat H, van Meurs T, Rustemeyer T, Bruynzeel DP, Kirtschig G. Vulval allergic contact dermatitis due to peppermint oil in herbal tea. Contact Dermatitis. 2008;58(6):364-365.18503687
Vidal F, Vidal JC, Gadelha AP, Lopes CS, Coelho MG, Monteiro-Leal LH. Giardia lamblia: the effects of extracts and fractions from Mentha x piperita Lin. (Lamiaceae) on trophozoites. Exp Parasitol. 2007;115(1):25-31.16843460
Vladimir-Knežević S, Blažeković B, Kindl M, Vladić J, Lower-Nedza AD, Brantner AH. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory, antioxidant and phytochemical properties of selected medicinal plants of the Lamiaceae family. Molecules. 2014;19(1):767-782.24413832
Walker DK, Alabaster CT, Congrave GS, et al. Significance of metabolism in the disposition and action of the antidysrhythmic drug, dofetilide. In vitro studies and correlation with in vivo data. Drug Metab Dispos. 1996;24(4):447-455.8801060
Wasner G, Schattschneider J, Binder A, Baron R. Topical menthol—a human model for cold pain by activation and sensitization of C nociceptors. Brain. 2004;127(pt 5):1159-1171.14985268
Weiss AP, Murray GB. Abuse of topical analgesic. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(4):651-652.11282708
White DA, Thompson SP, Wilson CG, Bell GD. A pharmacokinetic comparison of two delayed-release peppermint oil preparations, Colpermin and Mintec, for treatment of the irritable bowel syndrome. Int J Pharm. 1987;40(1-2):151-155.
Wilkinson SM, Beck MH. Allergic contact dermatitis from menthol in peppermint. Contact Dermatitis. 1994;30(1):42-43.8156763
Wise PM, Breslin PA, Dalton P. Sweet taste and menthol increase cough reflex thresholds. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2012;25(3):236-241.22465565
Yamaguchi T, Caldwell J, Farmer PB. Metabolic fate of [3H]-l-menthol in the rat. Drug Metab Dispos. 1994;22(4):616-624.7956738
Yamamoto N, Nakai Y, Sasahira N, et al. Efficacy of peppermint oil as an antispasmodic during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography [published correction appears in J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(11):1768]. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(9):1394-1398.16911682
Zaia MG, Cagnazzo Td, Feitosa KA, et al. Anti-inflammatory properties of menthol and menthone in Schistosoma mansoni infection. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:170.27378927
Zheljazkov VD, Cantrell CL, Astatkie T, Hristov A. Yield, content, and composition of peppermint and spearmints as a function of harvesting time and drying. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58(21):11400-11407.20942459
Zong L, Qu Y, Luo DX, et al. Preliminary experimental research on the mechanism of liver bile secretion stimulated by peppermint oil. J Dig Dis. 2011;12(4):295-301.21791024

Further information

Always consult your healthcare provider to ensure the information displayed on this page applies to your personal circumstances.

Medical Disclaimer

Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health