Clonidine/ketorolac/ropivacaine Disease Interactions

The use of ketorolac is contraindicated in patients with active peptic ulcers, recent gastrointestinal bleeding or perforation, or a history of peptic ulcer disease or gastrointestinal bleeding. Ketorolac is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). NSAIDs can cause gastrointestinal mucosal damage, the risk of which appears to be related to both dosage and duration of therapy. Serious GI toxicity such as bleeding, ulceration and perforation can occur at any time, with or without warning symptoms, in patients treated with ketorolac. Therapy with ketorolac should be considered and administered cautiously in patients with a history of GI inflammation or alcoholism, particularly if they are elderly and/or debilitated, since such patients may be more susceptible to the GI toxicity of NSAIDs and seem to tolerate ulceration and bleeding less well than other individuals. Close monitoring for toxicity is recommended during ketorolac therapy, which should be limited to 5 days regardless of the route of administration.

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The use of ketorolac is considered by the manufacturer to be contraindicated in patients with suspected or confirmed cerebrovascular bleeding, hemorrhagic diathesis, incomplete hemostasis, or a high risk of bleeding. Ketorolac is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). NSAIDs reversibly inhibit platelet adhesion and aggregation and may prolong bleeding time in healthy individuals. With the exception of aspirin, the platelet effects seen with most NSAIDs at usual recommended dosages are generally slight and of relatively short duration but may be more pronounced in patients with underlying hemostatic abnormalities. Thrombocytopenia has also been reported rarely during NSAID use. Therapy with NSAIDs, including ketorolac, should be administered cautiously in patients with significant active bleeding.

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The use of ketorolac is contraindicated in patients with advanced renal impairment or increased risk for renal failure due to volume depletion. Ketorolac is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). The use of NSAIDs may be associated with renal toxicities, including elevations in serum creatinine and BUN, tubular necrosis, glomerulitis, renal papillary necrosis, acute interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and renal failure. In patients with prerenal conditions whose renal perfusion may be dependent on the function of renal prostaglandins, NSAIDs may precipitate overt renal decompensation via a dose-related inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. Patients at greatest risk for this reaction include geriatric patients and those with impaired renal function, heart failure, liver dysfunction, or substantial volume and/or sodium depletion (e.g., due to diuretics). Therapy with ketorolac should be administered cautiously in such patients, and hypovolemia and hyponatremia should be corrected prior to initiating treatment. Clinical monitoring of renal function is recommended during therapy. If renal function declines or renal failure occurs, prompt discontinuation of ketorolac therapy will usually lead to recovery to the pretreatment state. Since ketorolac and its metabolites are eliminated by the kidney, a reduction to half the normal dosage with a maximum of 60 mg/day is recommended in patients with moderately impaired renal function to avoid drug accumulation.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are contraindicated in patients with history of asthma, urticaria, or other allergic-type reactions after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs; severe, sometimes fatal, anaphylactic reactions to NSAIDs have been reported in such patients. A subpopulation of patients with asthma may have aspirin-sensitive asthma which may include chronic rhinosinusitis complicated by nasal polyps, severe potentially fatal bronchospasm, and/or intolerance to aspirin and other NSAIDs. Since cross-reactivity between aspirin and other NSAIDs has been reported in such aspirin-sensitive patients, therapy with any NSAID should be avoided in patients with this form of aspirin sensitivity. NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients with preexisting asthma (without known aspirin sensitivity), and these patients should be monitored for changes in the signs and symptoms of asthma.

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Fluid retention and edema have been reported in association with the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Therapy with NSAIDs should be administered cautiously in patients with preexisting fluid retention, hypertension, or a history of heart failure. Blood pressure and cardiovascular status should be monitored closely during the initiation of NSAID treatment and throughout the course of therapy.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause serious gastrointestinal (GI) adverse events including inflammation, bleeding, ulceration, and perforation of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, or large intestine, which can be fatal. These serious adverse events can develop at any time, with or without warning symptoms. NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients with history of peptic ulcer disease and/or GI bleeding, as these patients had a greater than 10-fold increased risk for developing a GI bleed compared to patients without these risk factors. Caution is also advised if NSAIDs are prescribed to patients with other factors that increase risk of GI bleeding, such as: prolonged NSAID therapy; concomitant use of oral corticosteroids, antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin), anticoagulants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; alcohol use; smoking; history of gastrointestinal surgery or anastomosis, older age; poor general health status; and advanced liver disease and/or coagulopathy. Particular vigilance is necessary when treating elderly or debilitated patients since most postmarketing reports of fatal GI events occurred in these patients.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause serious skin adverse reactions (e.g., Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and exfoliative dermatitis), which can be fatal. These serious events may occur without warning. Patients should be advised to discontinue the NSAID and seek medical attention promptly at the first sign of skin rash or any other sign of hypersensitivity. NSAIDs are contraindicated in patients with previous serious skin reactions to these drugs.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) cause an increased risk of serious cardiovascular thrombotic events, including myocardial infarction and stroke, which can be fatal. This risk may occur early in treatment and may increase with duration of use. Clinical trials of several cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) selective and nonselective NSAIDs of up to 3 years duration have supported this increased risk. It is unclear from available data if the risk for cardiovascular thrombotic events is similar for all NSAIDs. Therapy with NSAIDs should be administered cautiously in patients with a history of cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease. Patients should be treated with the lowest effective dosage for the shortest duration necessary. Appropriate antiplatelet therapy should be administered to patients requiring cardioprotection; however, there is no consistent evidence that concurrent use of aspirin mitigates the increased risk of serious cardiovascular thrombotic events associated with NSAID use, while the risk of serious gastrointestinal events is increased. Physicians and patients should remain alert for the development of adverse cardiovascular events throughout the entire duration of therapy, even without prior cardiovascular symptoms. Patients should be advised to promptly seek medical attention if they experience symptoms of cardiovascular thrombotic events (including chest pain, shortness of breath, weakness, or slurring of speech).

NSAIDs are contraindicated in the setting of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. Two large clinical trials of a COX-2 selective NSAID for the treatment of pain in the first 10 to 14 days following CABG surgery found an increased incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke.

The use of NSAIDs should be avoided in patients with a recent myocardial infarction unless the benefits are expected to outweigh the risk of recurrent cardiovascular thrombotic events. If an NSAID is used in patients with a recent myocardial infarction, they should be monitored for signs of cardiac ischemia.

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Central alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonists reduce sympathetic outflow from the central nervous system. Heart rate is decreased, which may lead to or exacerbate sinus bradycardia and atrioventricular block. Therapy with central alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonists should be administered cautiously in patients with conduction disturbances such as sinus node dysfunction or AV nodal disease.

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Central alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonists may occasionally cause mental depression and should be used cautiously in patients with a history of depression.

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Central alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonists reduce sympathetic outflow from the central nervous system, resulting in decreases in heart rate, peripheral and renovascular resistance, and blood pressure. Therapy with these agents should be administered cautiously in patients with hypotension or conditions that may be exacerbated by decreased blood pressure and perfusion, such as coronary insufficiency, peripheral vascular disease (e.g., Raynaud's syndrome), cerebrovascular disease, or recent myocardial infarction.

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Clonidine is primarily eliminated unchanged by the kidney. The serum concentrations and half-life of clonidine may be increased in patients with impaired renal function, so patients may benefit from a lower initial dose. Dosage adjustments may be necessary and modifications should be based on the degree of renal impairment. Only a minimal amount of clonidine is removed during routine hemodialysis, and there is no need to give supplemental clonidine following dialysis.

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Patients may experience a sedative effect, dizziness, or accommodation disorder with the use of clonidine. Patients should be cautioned about engaging in activities such as driving a vehicle or operating machinery. The sedative effect may be increased with the concomitant use of alcohol or other sedating drugs.

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Anemia has been reported in patients treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). This may be due to fluid retention, occult/gross blood loss, or an incompletely described effect on erythropoiesis. Hemoglobin or hematocrit should be monitored in patients with any signs/symptoms of anemia or blood loss, especially during long-term therapy. NSAIDs may increase risk of bleeding events; comorbid conditions (e.g., coagulation disorders; concomitant use of warfarin/other anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, serotonin/serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) may increase this risk, and patients with these conditions should be monitored for signs of bleeding. Therapy with NSAIDs should be administered cautiously in patients with or predisposed to anemia. Clinical monitoring of hematopoietic function may be appropriate, particularly during chronic therapy.

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Fluid retention and edema have been observed in patients treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including some topical formulations. These drugs should be avoided in patients with severe heart failure unless the benefits are expected to outweigh the risk of worsening heart failure. If an NSAID is used in patients with severe heart failure, they should be monitored for signs of worsening heart failure.

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Borderline elevations of 1 or more liver tests may occur in up to 15% of patients treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). These laboratory abnormalities may progress, remain unchanged, or regress with continuing therapy. Elevations of ALT or AST (at least 3 times the upper limit of normal) have been reported in about 1% of patients in clinical trials. In addition, rare (sometimes fatal) cases of severe hepatotoxicity, including liver necrosis, hepatic failure, jaundice, and fulminant hepatitis have been reported. Therapy with NSAIDs should be administered cautiously in patients with preexisting liver disease. Periodic monitoring of liver function is recommended during prolonged therapy. NSAIDs are also highly protein-bound and some are extensively metabolized by the liver. Metabolic activity and/or plasma protein binding may be altered in patients with hepatic impairment. A dosage reduction may be required in some cases.

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Increases in serum potassium concentration (including hyperkalemia) have been reported with use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), even in some patients without renal impairment. In patients with normal renal function, these effects have been attributed to a hyporeninemic-hypoaldosteronism state. Caution is advised in patients with hyperkalemia.

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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including topicals, can lead to new onset of hypertension or worsening of preexisting hypertension, either of which can contribute to the increased incidence of cardiovascular events. NSAIDs should be used with caution in patients with hypertension. Blood pressure should be monitored closely during the initiation of NSAID therapy and throughout the course of therapy.

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