Potato
Scientific Name(s): Solanum tuberosum L.
Common Name(s): Irish potato, Potato, US russet, White potato
Medically reviewed by Drugs.com. Last updated on Nov 21, 2024.
Clinical Overview
Use
Potatoes are rich in starch and several vitamins. They are also considered to be a source of high-quality and allergy-free protein. Studies have primarily been conducted in animals and/or in vitro; clinical trial data are lacking to recommend use for any indication.
Dosing
Potato has generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status when used as food. There is no clinical evidence to support specific dosing recommendations. The widespread use of the tubers as a food is tempered by the occurrence of toxic alkaloids in sprouting potatoes and in foliage.
Contraindications
Contraindications have not been identified. Excessive consumption of potatoes in individuals with severe renal function impairment may lead to hyperkalemia.
Pregnancy/Lactation
Potato has GRAS status when used as food. Avoid excessive consumption because safety and efficacy are unproven.
Interactions
None well documented.
Adverse Reactions
Allergic reactions to raw and cooked potato have been documented and include anaphylaxis. GI symptoms (eg, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting) are generally associated with consumption of blighted, greening, or sprouted tubers. Potatoes may affect glycemic control and insulin levels in individuals with diabetes.
Toxicology
The 2 primary types of toxins associated with potatoes are acrylamide and glycoalkaloids; levels depend on the cultivar as well as on postharvesting and processing methods. Symptoms associated with toxicity from potato consumption include weak, rapid pulse; rapid and shallow breathing; delirium; and coma. Reports of death exist, especially associated with consumption of blighted, greening, or sprouted tubers.
Scientific Family
- Solanaceae (nightshade)
Botany
The potato is a weedy plant recognized for its tuberous growth and valued as a commercial food. Potatoes are propagated from the underground runners of the plant from the "eyes."(Mabberley 1987, USDA 2022)
History
Potatoes have been cultivated since 500 BC; Central and South American Indians were probably among the first to select hardy cultivators of the potato as a food staple.(Friedman 2006, Mabberley 1987) Despite the Spanish introduction of the plant into Europe in the late 1500s, the tubers did not become a popular food source until the 17th century because of religious and mythological concerns regarding toxicity of the plant. Once accepted, potatoes were widely disseminated to Germany, other parts of Europe, and Russia.
By the 17th and 18th centuries, potatoes formed such a large part of the Irish diet that intake for adults exceeded 8 lb/day. The fungal disease known as "potato blight" destroyed more than 80% of crops in the 1840s, resulting in the starvation of more than 3 million Irish people and the emigration of many more.(Friedman 2006)
Raw potato has been used traditionally in poultices for arthritis, infections, boils, burns, and sore eyes; potato peel tea has been used to soothe edema or bodily swelling; and raw potato juice has been ingested to soothe gastritis or stomach disorders.(Boyd 1984)
The potato remains an important food crop, with over 200 million metric tons harvested annually worldwide, surpassed only by wheat.(Friedman 2006) Potatoes are also used as a source of starch and in the manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.(Evans 1989)
Chemistry
Potatoes are rich in starch, with potato maltodextrin used in the preparation of commercial foods. Varying amounts of potassium, iron, riboflavin, folate, and vitamins are found primarily in the thick periderm of the skin.(Bethke 2008, Friedman 2006, Hatzis 2006, King 2013) Potatoes only contain 2% to 10% protein (Friedman 2006, Hellenäs 1992); however, they are also considered to be an emerging source of high-quality and allergy-free protein.(Hussain 2021) Protease inhibitors represent a structurally heterogeneous group with a broad range of antifungal and antimicrobial activities.(Bártová 2019) Potato snakins, defensins, and pseudothionins have the ability to inhibit serious potato fungi as well as bacterial pathogens.(Bártová 2019) Snakin-1 from potato (S. tuberosum) is a basic globular antimicrobial cysteine-rich peptide isolated from the tubers.(Almasia 2020)
The potato is known as a potential source of polyphenols and also has health benefits in which phenolic acids (eg, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid) and flavonoids (eg, anthocyanins) sustainably play the most significant role.(Rasheed 2022)
The potato also contains a variety of steroidal alkaloids chemically related by the cholestane ring structure. The major toxic glycoalkaloids are alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine, with others, including the leptines and teptidine, found in the leaves of some, but not all, species.(Friedman 2006, Hellenäs 1992) Protease inhibitors, phenolic compounds, and lectins have also been identified.(Friedman 2006, Friedman 2008, Mensinga 2005) Processing can induce a toxic compound called acrylamide.(Friedman 2008, Seal 2008) Pesticide residues can be found in the skin of the potato tuber but are largely removed by washing in water, acetic acid, or salt, as well as by peeling or frying.(Soliman 2001)
Uses and Pharmacology
Antifungal and antimicrobial activity
The antifungal and antimicrobial properties of potato proteins may suggest a role as an additive to feed or food products, or in development of new crop cultivars with enhanced resistance to pathogens.(Bártová 2019)
Antioxidant effects
Polyphenols, particularly flavonoids such as anthocyanins, show a capacity to capture free radicals and act as antioxidants, which helps prevent cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders, and offers a protective effect in diabetic nephropathy induced by inflammation.(Rasheed 2022)
Antiproliferative effects
Animal and in vitro data
An antiproliferative effect on human colon and liver cancer cells has been demonstrated in vitro.(Friedman 2006, Friedman 2005) Glycoalkaloids from other species have demonstrated inhibitory action on tumors in mice and human solid tumor cell lines, as well as on basal and squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas.(Friedman 2005, Leo 2008, Shih 2007)
Cardiovascular health
Animal and in vitro data
Experiments in rats found decreased plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels with a whole (including the skin) potato–enriched diet over a 3-week period. The plasma antioxidant capacity was also increased.(Robert 2006) In vitro experiments have also confirmed the antioxidant effect of potato tubers.(Leo 2008, Liu 2003)
Dyspepsia
Clinical data
Use of potato juice for the management of dyspepsia has been supported by limited clinical trials.(Chrubasik 2006, Vlachojannis 2010)
Potato consumption/diabetes risk association
Clinical data
Evidence regarding associations between potato consumption and type 2 diabetes (T2D) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) risks is accumulating.(Guo 2021) In a meta-analysis aiming to synthesize evidence of this association, a total of 19 studies (13 for T2D; 6 for GDM) were identified, including 21,357 T2D cases among 323,475 participants and 1,516 GDM cases among 29,288 pregnancies. Meta-analysis detected a significantly positive association with T2D risk for total potato (relative risk [RR], 1.19 [95% CI, 1.06 to 1.34]), baked/boiled/mashed potato (RR, 1.08 [95% CI, 1 to 1.16]), and French fries/fried potato (RR, 1.33 [95% CI, 1.03 to 1.7]) intakes among Western populations. A dose-response meta-analysis demonstrated a significantly increased T2D risk by 10% (95% CI, 1.07 to 1.14; P for trend <0.001), 2% (95% CI, 1 to 1.04; P for trend =0.02), and 34% (95% CI, 1.24 to 1.46; P for trend <0.001) for each 80 g/day (serving) increment in total potato, unfried potato, and fried potato intakes, respectively. For GDM, summarized estimates also suggested a higher though nonsignificant GDM risk for total potato (RR, 1.19 [95% CI, 0.89 to 1.58]) and French fries/fried potato (RR, 1.03 [95% CI, 0.97 to 1.09]) intakes in Western countries. In the dose-response meta-analysis, a significantly increased GDM risk was revealed for each daily serving (80 g) intakes of total potato (RR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.42; P for trend =0.007) and unfried potato (RR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.07 to 1.48; P for trend =0.006). It was concluded that a higher potato intake is associated with a higher T2D risk among Western populations. This positive relationship presents a significant dose-response manner. In addition, it was concluded that controlled potato consumption may confer potential glucometabolic benefits.(Guo 2021) This was supported by a dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies, which concluded that long-term high consumption of potatoes may be strongly associated with an increased risk of diabetes.(Bidel 2018)
In the Nurses' Health Study, the risk of T2DM was higher with increased potato consumption, especially among females with obesity.(Halton 2006) Another study conducted in adult patients with T2DMfound a relationship between potato intake and a negative impact on glucose levels and insulin resistance only in males, who consumed approximately 50% more potatoes per day than females. Findings suggest that a certain threshold of potato intake needs to be exceeded before an untoward effect on glucose metabolism occurs.(Ylönen 2007)
Conversely, in a study conducted in adults with BMI of 29.6±3.9 (N=90) to evaluate effects of a dietary prescription for energy intake modification, glycemic index, and potato consumption on weight loss, no impact on weight loss and no effect on triglycerides, glucose tolerance, insulin, or insulin sensitivity was found.(Randolph 2014) A randomized, crossover study in healthy adults (N=50) concluded that the daily intake of nonfried potatoes does not affect markers of glycemia and is associated with a better diet quality compared with refined grains. In addition, potassium and fiber intake was improved without adversely affecting cardiometabolic risks.(Johnston 2020) Individuals with a higher cardiometabolic risk profile may benefit from an increased potassium intake.(Stone 2021)
The glycemic index of potatoes is influenced by the cultivar and cooking method. The common US russet potato has a moderately high glycemic index (approximately 71 when baked, similar to that of white bread).(Fernandes 2005) A reduced glycemic response is obtained when potatoes are precooked and eaten cold or reheated.(Buyken 2005, Fernandes 2005, Neithercott 2009) When compared with a rice meal, boiled, roasted, or boiled then cooled potato–based meals were not associated with unfavorable postprandial glucose responses or nocturnal glycemic control, and can be considered suitable for individuals with T2DM when consumed as part of a mixed evening meal.(Devlin 2021)
Proteolytic activity
Proteins derived from potato tubers have demonstrated proteolytic activity. The elucidation of protease inhibitors from different potato species and potential clinical applications is an area of ongoing research.(Cesari 2007, Kim 2006, Ruseler-van Embden 2004, Vlachojannis 2010)
Dosing
Potato has GRAS status when used as food. There is no clinical evidence to support specific dosing recommendations. The widespread use of the tubers as food is tempered by the occurrence of toxic glycoalkaloids, especially in sprouting potatoes.
The biological half-life is estimated to be 10.7 hours for alpha-solanine and 19.1 hours for alpha-chaconine.(Hellenäs 1992, Mensinga 2005) A recommended acceptable level of total glycoalkaloid concentration in commercial potato cultivars is not more than 200 mg/kg fresh potato, but the safety of this level is disputed and has not been officially adopted in the United States.(Friedman 2006, Korpan 2004)
Pregnancy / Lactation
Potato has GRAS when used as food. Avoid excessive consumption because safety and efficacy are unproven.
The contribution of potato glycoalkaloids to neural tube defects has been explored. Animal studies have shown the ability of potato glycoalkaloids to induce spina bifida, anencephalopathy, embryo toxicity, and teratogenicity. However pregnant females whose fetuses exhibited neural tube defects had lower serum levels of glycoalkaloids compared with pregnancies in which the fetus was unaffected by neural tube defects.(Friedman 2006, Renwick 1984)
Interactions
None well documented.(Korpan 2004) In experiments with rabbits, potato glycoalkaloids enhanced the neuromuscular blocking action of the anesthetic mivacurium(Friedman 2006) and succinylcholine.(Bestas 2013)
Adverse Reactions
Case reports exist of anaphylaxis following consumption of cooked and raw potatoes. Allergic reactions include atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, rhinitis, and wheezing.(Beausoleil 2001, Majamaa 2001)
Studies among volunteers suggest that adverse GI symptoms result from total glycoalkaloid concentrations of 2 to 5 mg/kg body weight.(Friedman 2006, Mensinga 2005) GI adverse effects (eg, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting) have been reported and are generally associated with the consumption of blighted, greening, or sprouted tubers.(Friedman 2006, Korpan 2004, Mensinga 2005)
Excessive consumption of potatoes in individuals with severe renal function impairment may lead to hyperkalemia, although dicing and boiling reduces the potassium content.(Bethke 2008, Buyken 2005, Neithercott 2009)
A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies was conducted to examine the association of potato consumption and the risk of all-cause cancer and cardiovascular mortality in adults. It was concluded that there was no significant association between potato consumption and the risk of mortality; however, further studies are required to confirm these findings.(Darooghegi Mofrad 2020, Darooghegi Mofrad 2021) In addition, high potato consumption was not consistently associated with a higher risk of pancreatic cancer, according to a large population-based Scandinavian cohort study (HELGA).(Åsli 2018)
Toxicology
The 2 primary types of toxins associated with potatoes are acrylamide and glycoalkaloids.(Barceloux 2009, Zaheer 2016)
Acrylamide presence in foods is a consequence of a heat-induced reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars, known as the Maillard reaction. The relative levels of these precursor chemicals, which themselves are dependent on the cultivar, growing conditions, harvest time, and storage, determine the final acrylamide concentration in the potato.(Seal 2008) The heat intensity and cooking method are directly related to the formation of acrylamide. Boiled and baked potatoes generally contain less acrylamide, whereas French fries and potato and tortilla chips have a higher acrylamide content.(Friedman 2008, Seal 2008)
The highest dietary exposure to acrylamide in humans comes from consumption of potatoes, cereals, and coffee. A maximum acceptable exposure level to acrylamide has not been determined, and a direct association between dietary acrylamide and cancer has not been established, despite animal experiments demonstrating genotoxicity.(Friedman 2008) Epidemiological studies have shown no association between acrylamide consumption and breast cancer in females(Larsson 2009, Wilson 2009) and likewise no association between acrylamide intake and colorectal cancer in males.(Larsson 2009)
Glycoalkaloids have been implicated as teratogens in animal studies. In vitro experiments have shown glycoalkaloids inhibit human serum cholinesterases, and in case studies of toxicity related to potato consumption, effective plasma cholinesterase levels were low.(Friedman 2006, Korpan 2004) Symptoms associated with this effect include weak, rapid pulse; rapid and shallow breathing; delirium; and coma. Reports of death exist, especially associated with the consumption of blighted, greening, or sprouted tubers. More commonly, GI adverse effects are reported, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting.(Friedman 2006, Korpan 2004, Mensinga 2005) Glycoalkaloid interference with transport of calcium and sodium ions across cell membranes and disruption of cholesterol-containing cell membranes have also been reported.(Korpan 2004, Mandimika 2007)
The glycoalkaloids solanine and chaconine are found in potatoes; however, the total glycoalkaloid content depends on the cultivar of the potato, as well as postharvesting exposure to light and heat and the processing methods for cooking and consumption.(Friedman 2006) Glycoalkaloid content is reduced by approximately 3% by boiling potatoes, by 15% by microwaving, and by up to 40% by deep frying. Commercially available potato fries, chips, and flakes contain variable amounts of glycoalkaloids. Concerns exist regarding frying processes, especially with regard to the frequency with which the oil used for frying is changed. The oil can become saturated with glycoalkaloids, and diffusion back into the potato can occur, thus increasing the glycoalkaloid level.(Friedman 2006)
References
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