Mustard

Scientific Name(s): Sinapis alba L. (white or yellow mustard), Brassica nigra L. Koch (black or true mustard), Brassica juncea L. Czern. et Cosson (oriental, leaf, or Indian mustard). Family: Brassicaceae 1

Common Name(s): White mustard , yellow mustard , black mustard , true oriental mustard , leaf mustard , Indian mustard 1

Clinical Overview

Uses of Mustard

Derivatives of the mustard constituent allyl isothiocyanate form the basis for toxic agents such as mustard gases of warfare and the antineoplastic nitrogen mustard. Mustard itself is used as a food, flavoring, forage, emetic, diuretic, and as a topical treatment for inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and rheumatism. Mustard also has antioxidant activity and pharmacological effects on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes.

Mustard Dosing

There are no recent clinical trials of mustard seed to guide dosage; however, secondary references document an oral dosage of 60 to 240 mg/day of seed has been recommended for treating colds and bronchitis. There are numerous commercially available products containing mustard in capsule, powder, and tablet forms.

Contraindications

None well documented. Avoid use in patients who are hypersensitive to the plant species.

Pregnancy/Lactation

Safety and efficacy have not been established. Avoid dosages higher than those found in food.

Mustard Interactions

None well documented.

Mustard Adverse Reactions

Allyl isothiocyanate is an irritant and blistering agent. It has counterirritant properties and induces lacrimation. Topical application of mustard oil to the skin induces inflammation by activating the tachykinin NK ₁ receptor versus histamine or serotonin. Injection into joints induces allodynia (ordinarily nonpainful stimuli evoke pain), hyperalgesia, inflammation, and neuroinflammation.

Toxicology

The oil is highly irritating and should be considered toxic. Mustard compounds have been implicated in the development of goiter.

Botany

The genus Brassica contains over 150 species that are cultivated worldwide as oilseed crops or vegetables. The mustards are annual or biennial herbs that grow from 1 to 3 m in height. The dried, ripe seed is used commercially. Ground mustard, derived from the powdered mustard seed, is known as mustard flour. The main types of mustard seed consist of single or mixed white, black, or brown seed. More pungent mustards are derived from seeds from which the fixed oil has been removed. 1

History

Mustard seed has been used internally and externally since ancient times. Mustard and its oil have been used as a topical treatment for rheumatisms and arthritis, and as a foot bath for aching feet. Internally, mustard seeds have been used as appetite stimulants, emetics, and diuretics. 1 , 2

When black mustard is prepared as a condiment with vinegar, salt, and water, the product is known as German-prepared mustard. S. alba seed, when prepared in a similar manner but without spices, is known as English mustard. 2 Mustards are grown extensively as forage crops.

Chemistry

Mustard seeds contain numerous chemical constituents.

Phytoalexins are involved with plant defense mechanisms such as activity against bacteria and fungi. Sinalexin and sinalbins A and B have been isolated from S. alba . 3

The free and esterified sterols in Brassica and Sinapis species primarily contain sitosterol and campesterol. The seed oils from the Brassica species also contain small amounts of δ ⁵ -avenasterol and δ ⁷ -avenasterol. 4

Flavonoids assist in plant defense mechanisms and play an important role in plant-microbe interactions. Apigenin has been isolated from the roots and shoots of B. alba . The following flavonoids also have been isolated from the roots and shoots of B. alba : 3,5,6,7,8-pentahydroxy-4'-methoxyl, 2'-3'-4'-5'-6'-pentahydroxyl chalcone, and 3,5,6,7,8-pentahydroxyl flavone. 5

Crude mucilage from S. alba was 5% of the total seed weight. Analysis of the components in the crude mucilage revealed 80% to 94% carbohydrates, 1.7% to 15% ash, and 2.2 to 4.4% protein. The ratio of carbohydrates included 22% to 35% glucose, 11% to 15% galactose, and smaller amounts of mannose, rhamnose, arabinose, and xylose. 6

The flavor of mustard seeds is derived from glucosinolates, which are thiocyanate glycosides. Sinalbin is responsible for the flavor of white mustard seed; sinigrin is responsible for the sharper taste associated with black and brown mustard seeds. 1

Volatile mustard oil is derived from steam distillation or by expression. The fixed oil does not contribute to the pungency of the mustard, and ground mustard does not have a pungent aroma. The pungency is produced by glucosinolates, which are hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase (a thioglucoside glucohydrolase) to the flavor active mustard oil isothiocyanates. Sinalbin primarily yields the nonvolatile 4-hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate while sinigrin yields the volatile allyl isothiocyanate, which are responsible for the pungent aroma. Depending on the variety of mustard, the yield of allyl isothiocyanate is approximately 1%. Brassica species produce large quantities of isothiocyanates; more than 50 isothiocyanates have been reported as glucosinolate hydrolysis products. 1 , 7 , 8 , 9

Other components of the oil include fixed oil, proteins, sinapic acid, and sinapine.

Mustard Uses and Pharmacology

There have been numerous phytochemical investigations on mustard seed. Derivatives of allyl isothiocyanate have formed the basis for toxic agents such as mustard gasses and antineoplastic agents.

Aqueous extracts of mustard at 300 mcg/mL inhibited lipid peroxidation induced by FeSO ₄ -ascorbate on human erythrocyte membranes. The aqueous extracts of mustard also inhibited formation of diene, triene, and tetraene conjugates in human erythrocyte membranes. 10

A hypoglycemic effect was documented in rats fed a B. juncea diet (10% w/w) for 60 days. The mechanism of action for the hypoglycemic effect was related to stimulation of glycogen synthetase, which led to an increase in hepatic glycogen content, and suppression of glycogen phosphorylase and other gluconeogenic enzymes. 11 The efficacy of a B. juncea diet (10% w/w) on diabetic nephropathy was assessed in rats for 60 days. Experimental design included measuring parameters such as urine volume, serum creatinine, and urinary albumin on day 0, 10, 25, 40, and 70. Although not statistically significant, urinary albumin levels were reduced in rats treated with the B. juncea diet. The researchers concluded that the plant is best utilized as a food adjuvant for diabetic patients. Results of another study documented a decrease in fasting serum glucose, insulin, and cholesterol levels in rats fed a fructose diet containing B. juncea (10% w/w) for 30 days. 12 , 13

A randomized, placebo-controlled trial examined the effects of fish oil versus mustard oil over a 12-month period in 360 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Treatments were administered to all patients approximately 18 hours after symptoms of an AMI. Patients in group A (n = 122) received fish oil 1.08 g/day orally, group B (n = 120) received mustard oil 2.9 g/day orally, and 118 patients received placebo. Results indicated a reduction in total cardiac events in patients treated with fish oil or mustard oil compared with placebo (24.5% and 28% versus 34.7%, P < 0.01). Nonfatal infarctions also occurred less frequently in patients treated with fish oil or mustard oil compared with placebo (13% and 15% versus 25.4%, P < 0.05). However, total cardiac deaths were not reduced in patients treated with mustard oil versus fish oil. When compared with the placebo group, patients treated with fish oil or mustard oil showed a reduction in total angina pectoris, cardiac arrhythmias, and left ventricular enlargement. Diene conjugates were reduced in both treatment groups, indicating antioxidant activity. 14

Another randomized, single-blind, clinical trial of 1,000 patients with angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, or surrogate risk factors for coronary heart disease documented similar results in patients treated with increased intake of mustard, soy-bean oil, or whole grains. 15

Numerous mechanisms of actions are proposed for the cancer chemoprotective activity of organic isothiocyanates. Inhibition of tumor formation and carcinogen activation is associated with down regulation of the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system. Organic isothiocyanates also activate phase 2 enzymes that detoxify electrophilic intermediates formed during phase 1 metabolism. 16

Mustard juice was protective against benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P)-induced DNA damage in human derived cells in a dose-dependent manner. Chemoprotective properties may be associated with induction of detoxifying enzymes. 17 Another study examined the effects of organic isothiocyanates or mustard oils on P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP1)-mediated transport in multidrug resistant (MDR) human cancer cell lines. Both P-gp and MRP1 are involved in the bioavailability, distribution, and elimination of many drugs. Dietary organic isothiocyanates inhibited the P-gp- and MRP1-mediated efflux of daunomycin and vinblastine in MDR human cancer cells, enhancing the efficacy of cancer chemotherapy. The study also documents evidence of organic isothiocyanates inhibiting tumor formation in breast, colon, lung, and skin tissue in animal models. 16

Because of its topical irritant effects, mustard has been used as a rubefacient and irritant; mustard plasters are prepared by mixing mustard with flour or other material to make a paste for topical application. Allyl isothiocyanate has antimicrobial and antifungal activity, which helps provide resistance against pathogens of economic importance. 9

Dosage

There are no recent clinical trials of mustard seed to guide dosage; however, secondary references document an oral dosage of 60 to 240 mg/day of seed for treating colds and bronchitis. A study in humans determined that the major urinary metabolite of allyl isothiocyanate is excreted within 8 hours. A dose-dependent excretion of the metabolite was observed. 18 Numerous commercially available products contain mustard in capsule, powder, and tablet forms.

Pregnancy/Lactation

Safety and efficacy have not been established. Avoid dosages higher than those found in food.

Interactions

None well documented. A diet-drug interaction may exist between organic isothiocyanates and daunomycin and vinblastine.

Adverse Reactions

Allyl isothiocyanate is an irritant and blistering agent. It has counterirritant properties and induces lacrimation. Topical application of mustard oil to the skin induces inflammation by activating the tachykinin NK ₁ receptor versus histamine or serotonin, and injection into joints induces allodynia (ordinarily nonpainful stimuli evoke pain), hyperalgesia, inflammation, and neuroinflammation. 7 , 19 , 20

Toxicology

Allyl isothiocyanate is one of the most toxic essential oils and should not be tasted or inhaled undiluted. 21 , 22 , 23

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