Skip to main content

Broccoli

Scientific Name(s): Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L.
Common Name(s): BioResponse, Broccoli, Calabrese, Chou broccoli, Common broccoli, Cruciferous vegetable, Di-indolylmethane (DIM), Indole-3-carbinol (I3C), Indolplex, Sprouting broccoli

Medically reviewed by Drugs.com. Last updated on Jun 20, 2023.

Clinical Overview

Use

Cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, are being investigated for a potential role in the prevention and treatment of cancer, but no recommendations can be made. Preliminary data suggest broccoli sprout extract is hepatoprotective. Broccoli is a useful natural source of selenium.

Dosing

Broccoli 500 g daily and broccoli sprouts 50 g daily have been used in clinical trials. Preparation methods affect bioavailability of active chemical compounds and relevant endogenous enzymes.

Contraindications

None established.

Pregnancy/Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking.

Interactions

Reports of clinically important interactions are lacking. High consumption of broccoli may interfere with international normalized ratio (INR) values, antagonizing the effect of warfarin, but bioavailability of vitamin K is poor.

Adverse Reactions

Few reported in clinical trials.

Toxicology

Effects on thyroid function have been suggested. Tumor-promoting effects of DIM have been shown in some animal models, especially at higher dosages.

Scientific Family

Botany

The Brassica L. (mustard) genus includes cabbages, turnips, and pak choi; broccoli was derived from a species of wild cabbage. With extensive cultivation and selection, the B. oleracea species has become diverse, with many different varieties divided into several groups, including brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera), kohlrabi (var. gongylodes), sprouting broccoli (var. italica), and tronchuda cabbage (var. costata). Common broccoli (var. botrytis) has been developed to have a dense, central flowering head (10 to 20 cm) on a thick stem, with the head surrounded by petiolate leaves. Both green and purple broccoli varieties exist. Sprouting broccoli, also known as Italian or asparagus broccoli (var. italica), has loose, leafy stems and edible flower shoots, with no central head. Broccoli is a cool weather crop and is grown mostly in California and Arizona in the United States.1

History

Broccoli is thought to have been domesticated in ancient Rome from wild cabbage, and it was introduced to the United States by Italian immigrants in the early 20th century. Usually boiled or steamed, broccoli is popular as a quick frozen vegetable, and it is recognized as a functional food, having health benefits beyond its nutritive value.2, 3 Extracts have been used in skin disorders and to treat warts.2

Chemistry

Raw, green broccoli is a source of multiple vitamins and minerals, including calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, zinc, and selenium, as well as carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and vitamins C and K; however, content varies widely and the bioavailability of compounds may be low. Flavonoids (eg, quercetin, kaempferol), hydroxycinnamoyl compounds, and glucosinolates (primarily glucoraphanin and glucobrassican) have been described. Broccoli sprouts are consumed for their higher glucosinolate content. The glucosinolates give the species its characteristic taste and are influenced by cultivation methods.2, 3, 4

Glucosinolates have been extensively studied; approximately 120 compounds have been identified. The compounds are inactive after ingestion until hydrolyzed by the myrosinase enzyme endogenous to the plant. The respective isothiocyanates (particularly sulforaphane, I3C, and 3,3-DIM) are excreted via the urine as the corresponding mercapturic acids.2, 4, 5, 6 Levels of glucosinolates are affected by food processing; chopping broccoli increases the activity of myrosinase, while pulping broccoli in a blender will result in complete breakdown by autolysis. Cooking decreases glucosinolate levels up to 60%, depending on the method employed, and deactivates endogenous myrosinase, leaving the bacterial enzymes in the distal gut responsible for hydrolysis.2, 7, 8

Uses and Pharmacology

Autism

Clinical data

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effects of broccoli sprout-derived sulforaphane on behavior in 40 young men (age, 13 to 27 years) with moderate to severe autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Sulforaphane (50 to 150 mcmol daily for 18 weeks) was found to safely and effectively improve core aberrant behaviors of ASD at 4-, 10- and 18-week follow ups, which tended to revert to baseline after cessation of therapy. Two patients on sulforaphane experienced a single episode of unprovoked seizure.50

Cancer

Multiple mechanisms of action for broccoli and its constituents (especially sulforaphane, DIM, and I3C) have been proposed based largely on cell culture studies. Mechanisms include the induction of phase 1, 2, and 3 enzyme and transporter systems, phase 2 detoxification, inhibition of histone deacetylation, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and the inhibition of cell growth.4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

Of particular interest is the effect of I3C and DIM on estrogen metabolism.14, 15, 16 Both compounds appear to affect the concentrations of 2-, 4-, and 16-hydroxyestrone (-OHE) estrogen metabolites. Studies have shown that I3C and DIM are capable of increasing levels of 2-OHE and decreasing 16-OHE, suggesting a decreased cancer risk. Changes in the physiological levels of 4-OHE are considered to be too small to be of relevance; however, the metabolite is considered potentially mutagenic.14, 15, 17, 18, 19 Antiandrogenic properties have also been demonstrated for DIM.20

Animal studies

Broccoli, sulforaphane, and various glucosinolates/isothiocyanates have been used in experiments in mice and rats with induced prostate, small intestine, skin, and mammary cancers.7, 14, 15, 26 Limited animal studies have shown an increase in carcinogenic activity, such as increased liver cancer in trout fed DIM, and apoptosis in splenic cells in mice.15, 27, 28

Clinical studies

Published reviews of epidemiological data investigating the role of broccoli in cancer prevention have not all demonstrated a positive protective effect, but harm was not demonstrated.7, 21 No association was found for flavonoid-rich foods or broccoli with the incidence of total and site-specific cancers among middle-aged and older women in the Women's Health Study.22 Likewise, no association was demonstrated for flavonoids and the incidence of ovarian cancer; however, an inverse association with broccoli intake, attributed to kaempferol, was found.23 In the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial, vegetable and fruit consumption was not related to prostate cancer risk overall, but broccoli appeared to be protective for risk of aggressive, extraprostatic prostate cancer.24 The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study found no association between cruciferous vegetable consumption and the risk of prostate cancer.25 In the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, 5 or more servings of broccoli per week showed a protective effect for bladder cancer, while 2 further reviews showed 3 to 5 servings per week to be protective for prostate cancer.7 A review of epidemiological data for prostate cancer found modest support for a protective effect of Brassica vegetables, with 4 of 12 studies demonstrating statistically significant protection but noting bias to be a particular problem.21

Prospective clinical trials are limited. A clinical phase 1 study has been undertaken to research the safety, tolerance, and metabolism of broccoli sprouts.29 Variations in human genotypes have been suggested to influence response to the protective effects of cruciferous vegetables.30, 31 Two trials evaluated the effect of broccoli on biomarkers for breast cancer and found a protective effect suggesting a protective role in hormone-dependent cancers.32, 33 Results from a trial evaluating the effect of broccoli on breast cancer recurrence among breast cancer survivors are not available.34 A 12-month trial of a broccoli-rich diet showed a protective effect for prostate cancer biomarkers.35

Although the majority of clinical studies have investigated the effect of I3C in cancer, especially in breast and prostate cancers, I3C is rapidly transformed into DIM in the stomach and is considered by some researchers to be a prodrug of DIM. Poor oral bioavailability of naturally derived DIM has led to development of synthetic analogs.18, 36 At least 8 registered clinical trials are being conducted using DIM, and phase 1 dose escalation and safety trials have been conducted.17, 18, 37, 38, 39, 40 Preliminary results from clinical trials are encouraging, although not all studies have produced positive findings.14, 15, 41

Hepatoprotective effects

Clinical data

In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (N=55), dietary supplementation of a low-dose broccoli sprout extract (30 mg/day of glucoraphanin) for 2 months in Japanese males with fatty liver demonstrated significant improvement in mean percent change of ALT (−10.7%) and gamma-GTP (−8.9%) compared to baseline, but not for AST. These differences were not significantly different than the reductions seen with placebo (−4.3% and −1.1%, respectively). However, median changes in ALP were significantly different with broccoli sprout extract compared to placebo (−6 units/L and +3.5 units/L, respectively, P<0.05), whereas the significant albumin reduction (−0.5 g/dL) was slight and remained within the reference level range. Additional significant improvements compared with baseline observed with broccoli sprout extract included total cholesterol (−7 mg/dL), choline esterase (−2 units/L), the biomarker of oxidative stress, urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (−1.3 ng/mg creatinine), and adiponectin (−1.3 mcg/mL). A positive and significant relationship was documented between changes in the urinary oxidative stress marker and liver function markers; a dose-dependent protective effect confirmed in a chronic liver failure animal model.54

Other uses

Broccoli has been evaluated for its potential to eradicate Helicobacter pylori, but results have varied.42, 43 The antioxidant potential of broccoli has also been investigated.44, 45

Dosing

Broccoli 500 g daily has been used in clinical trials evaluating the protective effect on cancer biomarkers.32, 33 Preparation methods affect bioavailability of active chemical compounds and relevant endogenous enzymes.7, 8

Broccoli sprouts were given in dosages of up to 50 g/day (approximately glucosinolate 300 mcg) in 3 divided doses in a phase 1 clinical trial.29 The most effective dosages for DIM in cancer treatment/prevention have yet to be determined. Some pharmacokinetic studies have been conducted in healthy adults, and DIM has been used in clinical studies in children.37, 39 In clinical trials, DIM has been used at doses of 2 to 5 mg/kg/day for short periods of time (up to 6 months).17, 41 DIM has been delivered via an aerosol in a study in lung cancer.46

Pregnancy / Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Due to the potential effect on estrogen and androgen metabolism, as well as antiproliferative effects, DIM should not be taken during pregnancy.16

Interactions

Information on clinical interactions is lacking. Broccoli may antagonize the effect of warfarin; however, the effect of the vitamin K content in broccoli on INR fluctuations has been challenged because bioavailability is poor.47

Sulforaphane is a potent phase 2 enzyme inducer, impacting the cytochrome P450 system, and has been observed to inhibit CYP3A4, an isozyme commonly involved in drug-drug interactions.7 Sulforaphane restored chemosensitivity in doxorubicin-tolerant cell lines; therefore, an interaction with broccoli may present an advantage.4

Theoretically, consumption of DIM as a supplement might interfere with oral contraception.16

CYP1A2 substrates (high risk with inducers): Broccoli may decrease the serum concentration of CYP1A2 substrates (high risk with inducers). Monitor therapy.17, 51, 52, 53

Adverse Reactions

Clinical trials investigating consumption of broccoli 500 g daily did not report serious adverse reactions. Minor GI complaints were recorded.7, 29, 32

Clinical studies with I3C and DIM report mild GI adverse events and, rarely, rash and increases in liver enzymes.14

Toxicology

The breakdown of certain glucosinolates has been demonstrated to have negative effects on the thyroid in animals, with goiters reported.2 In a phase 1 safety trial, notable changes were observed for thyroid-stimulating hormone levels that exceeded upper limits of normal, but these did not reach statistical significance.29 Changes in plasma ALT were also noted in placebo and active arms, but the effect was attributed to elevations usually observed by participants in such trials.29

At 3 times the human therapeutic dose of DIM 2 mg/kg/day, no changes in serum chemistry or histology of the liver, kidney, and bone were found in immature rats48; however, a study conducted in neonatal mice found toxic effects on the immune system, including the spleen.28 Tumor-promoting effects of DIM have been shown in some animal models, especially at higher dosages.15, 49 Toxicity of DIM has been shown in dogs at 450 mg/kg/day.17

References

Disclaimer

This information relates to an herbal, vitamin, mineral or other dietary supplement. This product has not been reviewed by the FDA to determine whether it is safe or effective and is not subject to the quality standards and safety information collection standards that are applicable to most prescription drugs. This information should not be used to decide whether or not to take this product. This information does not endorse this product as safe, effective, or approved for treating any patient or health condition. This is only a brief summary of general information about this product. It does NOT include all information about the possible uses, directions, warnings, precautions, interactions, adverse effects, or risks that may apply to this product. This information is not specific medical advice and does not replace information you receive from your health care provider. You should talk with your health care provider for complete information about the risks and benefits of using this product.

This product may adversely interact with certain health and medical conditions, other prescription and over-the-counter drugs, foods, or other dietary supplements. This product may be unsafe when used before surgery or other medical procedures. It is important to fully inform your doctor about the herbal, vitamins, mineral or any other supplements you are taking before any kind of surgery or medical procedure. With the exception of certain products that are generally recognized as safe in normal quantities, including use of folic acid and prenatal vitamins during pregnancy, this product has not been sufficiently studied to determine whether it is safe to use during pregnancy or nursing or by persons younger than 2 years of age.

1. Brassica oleracea L. USDA, NRCS. 2012. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 8 March 2012). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. Accessed March 8, 2012.
2. Moreno DA, Carvajal M, López-Berenguer C, García-Viguera C. Chemical and biological characterisation of nutraceutical compounds of broccoli. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2006;41(5):1508-1522.16713696
3. Finley JW. Reduction of cancer risk by consumption of selenium-enriched plants: enrichment of broccoli with selenium increases the anticarcinogenic properties of broccoli. J Med Food. 2003;6(1):19-26.12804017
4. Fimognari C, Lenzi M, Hrelia P. Interaction of the isothiocyanate sulforaphane with drug disposition and metabolism: pharmacological and toxicological implications. Curr Drug Metab. 2008;9(7):668-678.18781917
5. Safe S, Papineni S, Chintharlapalli S. Cancer chemotherapy with indole-3-carbinol, bis(3′-indolyl)methane and synthetic analogs. Cancer Lett. 2008;269(2):326-338.18501502
6. Aggarwal BB, Ichikawa H. Molecular targets and anticancer potential of indole-3-carbinol and its derivatives. Cell Cycle. 2005;4(9):1201-1215.16082211
7. Jeffery EH, Keck AS. Translating knowledge generated by epidemiological and in vitro studies into dietary cancer prevention. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52(suppl 1):S7-S17.18327874
8. Rungapamestry V, Duncan AJ, Fuller Z, Ratcliffe B. Effect of meal composition and cooking duration on the fate of sulforaphane following consumption of broccoli by healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2007;97(4):644-652.17349076
9. Clarke JD, Dashwood RH, Ho E. Multi-targeted prevention of cancer by sulforaphane. Cancer Lett. 2008;269(2):291-304.18504070
10. Juge N, Mithen RF, Traka M. Molecular basis for chemoprevention by sulforaphane: a comprehensive review. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007;64(9):1105-1127.17396224
11. Myzak MC, Dashwood RH. Chemoprotection by sulforaphane: keep one eye beyond Keap1. Cancer Lett. 2006;233(2):208-218.16520150
12. Lampe JW, Peterson S. Brassica, biotransformation and cancer risk: genetic polymorphisms alter the preventive effects of cruciferous vegetables. J Nutr. 2002;132(10):2991-2994.12368383
13. Beecher CW. Cancer preventive properties of varieties of Brassica oleracea: a review. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;59(5)(suppl):1166S-1170S.8172118
14. Minich DM, Bland JS. A review of the clinical efficacy and safety of cruciferous vegetable phytochemicals. Nutr Rev. 2007;65(6, pt 1):259-267.17605302
15. Rogan EG. The natural chemopreventive compound indole-3-carbinol: State of the science. In Vivo. 2006;20(2):221-228.16634522
16. By the way, doctor. A preventive doctor told me to take indolplex (bioavailable diindolylmethane or DIM) to aid estrogen metabolism. Is there any research available about this supplement? Harv Womens Health Watch. 2005;12(6):8.
17. Rajoria S, Suriano R, Parmar PS, et al. 3,3′-diindolylmethane modulates estrogen metabolism in patients with thyroid proliferative disease: A pilot study. Thyroid. 2011;21(3):299-304.21254914
18. Ahmad A, Sakr WA, Rahman KM. Anticancer properties of indole compounds: Mechanism of apoptosis induction and role in chemotherapy. Curr Drug Targets. 2010;11(6):652-666.20298156
19. Jin Y. 3,3′-diindolylmethane inhibits breast cancer cell growth via miR-21-mediated Cdc25A degradation. Mol Cell Biochem. 2011;358(1-2):345-354.21761201
20. Le HT, Schaldach CM, Firestone GL, Bjeldanes LF. Plant-derived 3,3′-diindolylmethane is a strong androgen antagonist in human prostate cancer cells. J Biol Chem. 2003;278(23):21136-21145.12665522
21. Kristal AR, Lampe JW. Brassica vegetables and prostate cancer risk: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr Cancer. 2002;42(1):1-9.12235639
22. Wang L, Lee IM, Zhang SM, Blumberg JB, Buring JE, Sesso HD. Dietary intake of selected flavonols, flavones, and flavonoid-rich foods and risk of cancer in middle-aged and older women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(3):905-912.19158208
23. Gates MA, Tworoger SS, Hecht JL, DeVivo I, Rosner B, Hankinson SE. A prospective study of dietary flavonoid intake and incidence of epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Cancer. 2007;121(10):2225-2232.17471564
24. Kirsh VA, Peters U, Mayne ST, et al. Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99(15):1200-1209.17652276
25. Ambrosini GL, de Klerk NH, Fritschi L, Mackerras D, Musk B. Fruit, vegetable, vitamin A intakes, and prostate cancer risk. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2008;11(1):61-66.17519926
26. Firestone GL, Sundar SN. Minireview: Modulation of hormone receptor signaling by dietary anticancer indoles. Mol Endocrinol. 2009;23(12):1940-1947.19837944
27. Shilling AD, Carlson DB, Katchamart S, Williams DE. 3,3′-diindolylmethane, a major condensation product of indole-3-carbinol, is a potent estrogen in the rainbow trout. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2001;170(3):191-200.11162784
28. Roh YS, Cho A, Islam MR, et al. 3,3′-diindolylmethane induces immunotoxicity via splenocyte apoptosis in neonatal mice. Toxicol Lett. 2011;206(2):218-228.21820497
29. Shapiro TA, Fahey JW, Dinkova-Kostova AT, et al. Safety, tolerance, and metabolism of broccoli sprout glucosinolates and isothiocyanates: a clinical phase I study. Nutr Cancer. 2006;55(1):53-62.16965241
30. Moore LE, Brennan P, Karami S, et al. Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms, cruciferous vegetable intake and cancer risk in the Central and Eastern European Kidney Cancer Study. Carcinogenesis. 2007;28(9):1960-1964.17617661
31. Gasper AV, Al-Janobi A, Smith JA, et al. Glutathione S-transferase M1 polymorphism and metabolism of sulforaphane from standard and high-glucosinolate broccoli [published correction in Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(3):724]. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(6):1283-1291.16332662
32. Fowke JH, Longcope C, Hebert JR. Brassica vegetable consumption shifts estrogen metabolism in healthy postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9(8):773-779.10952093
33. Dalessandri KM, Firestone GL, Fitch MD, Bradlow HL, Bjeldanes LF. Pilot study: effect of 3,3′-diindolylmethane supplements on urinary hormone metabolites in postmenopausal women with a history of early-stage breast cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2004;50(2):161-167.15623462
34. Thomson CA, Rock CL, Caan BJ, et al. Increase in cruciferous vegetable intake in women previously treated for breast cancer participating in a dietary intervention trial. Nutr Cancer. 2007;57(1):11-19.17516858
35. Traka M, Gasper AV, Melchini A, et al. Broccoli consumption interacts with GSTM1 to perturb oncogenic signalling pathways in the prostate. PLoS One. 2008;3(7):e2568.18596959
36. Bradlow HL, Zeligs MA. Diindolylmethane (DIM) spontaneously forms from indole-3-carbinol (I3C) during cell culture experiments. In Vivo. 2010;24(4):387-391.20668304
37. Banerjee S, Kong D, Wang Z, Bao B, Hillman GG, Sarkar FH. Attenuation of multi-targeted proliferation-linked signaling by 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM): From bench to clinic. Mutat Res. 2011;728(1-2):47-66.21703360
38. Del Priore G, Gudipudi DK, Montemarano N, Restivo AM, Malanowska-Stega J, Arslan AA. Oral diindolylmethane (DIM): Pilot evaluation of a nonsurgical treatment for cervical dysplasia. Gynecol Oncol. 2010;116(3):464-467.19939441
39. Heath EI, Heilbrun LK, Li J, et al. A phase I dose-escalation study of oral BR-DIM (BioResponse 3,3′- diindolylmethane) in castrate-resistant, non-metastatic prostate cancer. Am J Transl Res. 2010;2(4):402-411.20733950
40. Dalessandri KM, Firestone GL, Fitch MD, Bradlow HL, Bjeldanes LF. Pilot study: Effect of 3,3′-diindolylmethane supplements on urinary hormone metabolites in postmenopausal women with a history of early-stage breast cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2004;50(2):161-167.15623462
41. Castanon A, Tristram A, Mesher D, et al. Effect of diindolylmethane supplementation on low-grade cervical cytological abnormalities: Double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Br J Cancer. 2012;106(1):45-52.22075942
42. Galan MV, Kishan AA, Silverman AL. Oral broccoli sprouts for the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection: a preliminary report. Dig Dis Sci. 2004;49(7-8):1088-1090.15387326
43. Opekun AR, Yeh CW, Opekun JL, Graham DY. In vivo tests of natural therapy, Tibetan yogurt or fresh broccoli, for Helicobacter pylori infection. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2005;27(5):327-329.16082421
44. Murashima M, Watanabe S, Zhuo XG, Uehara M, Kurashige A. Phase 1 study of multiple biomarkers for metabolism and oxidative stress after one-week intake of broccoli sprouts. Biofactors. 2004;22(1-4):271-275.15630296
45. Riedl MA, Saxon A, Diaz-Sanchez D. Oral sulforaphane increases Phase II antioxidant enzymes in the human upper airway. Clin Immunol. 2009;130(3):244-251.19028145
46. Ichite N, Chougule M, Patel AR, Jackson T, Safe S, Singh M. Inhalation delivery of a novel diindolylmethane derivative for the treatment of lung cancer. Mol Cancer Ther. 2010;9(11):3003-3014.20978159
47. Schurgers LJ, Shearer MJ, Hamulyák K, Stöcklin E, Vermeer C. Effect of vitamin K intake on the stability of oral anticoagulant treatment: dose-response relationships in healthy subjects. Blood. 2004;104(9):2682-2689.15231565
48. Elackattu AP, Feng L, Wang Z. A controlled safety study of diindolylmethane in the immature rat model. Laryngoscope. 2009;119(9):1803-1808.19544380
49. Reed GA, Sunega JM, Sullivan DK, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics and tolerability of absorption-enhanced 3,3′-diindolylmethane in healthy subjects. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17(10):2619-2624.18843002
50. Singh K, Connors SL, Macklin EA, et al. Sulforaphane treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014;111(43):15550-15555.25313065
51. Reed GA, Peterson KS, Smith HJ, et al. A phase I study of indole-3-carbinol in women: tolerability and effects. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14(8):1953-1960.16103443
52. McAlindon TE, Gulin J, Chen T, Klug T, Lahita R, Nuite M. Indole3-carbinol in women with SLE: effect on estrogen metabolism and disease activity. Lupus. 2001;10(11):779-783.11789487
53. Bell MC, Crowley-Nowick P, Bradlow HL, et al. Placebo-controlled trial of indole-3-carbinol in the treatment of CIN. Gynecol Oncol. 2000;78(2):123-129.10926790
54. Kikuchi M, Ushida Y, Shiozawa H, Umeda R, Tsuruya K, Aoki Y, Suganuma H, Nishizaki Y. Sulforaphane-rich broccoli sprout extract improves hepatic abnormalities in male subjects. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21(43):12457-12467.26604653

Further information

Always consult your healthcare provider to ensure the information displayed on this page applies to your personal circumstances.

Medical Disclaimer

Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health